Interleukin-1 family members are central mediators of host defense. Here we show that the novel IL-1 family member, IL-36γ, was expressed during experimental colitis and human inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). In response to dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced damage, germ-free (GF) mice failed to induce IL-36γ, suggesting that gut microbiota are involved in its induction. Surprisingly, IL-36R-deficient (Il1rl2−/−) mice exhibited defective recovery following DSS-induced damage and impaired closure of colonic mucosal biopsy wounds, which coincided with impaired neutrophil accumulation in the wound bed. Failure of Il1rl2−/− mice to recover from DSS-induced damage was associated with a profound reduction in IL-22 expression, particularly by colonic neutrophils. Defective recovery of Il1rl2−/− mice could be rescued an aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) agonist, which was sufficient to restore IL-22 expression and promote full recovery from DSS-induced damage. These findings implicate the IL-36/IL-36R axis in the resolution of intestinal mucosal wounds.

Regulatory and effector T helper (TH) cells are abundant at mucosal surfaces, especially in the intestine, where they control the critical balance between tolerance and inflammation. However, the key factors that reciprocally dictate differentiation along these specific lineages remain incompletely understood. Here, we report that the interleukin (IL)-1 family member IL-36γ signals through IL-36 receptor, MyD88, and NFκBp50 in CD4+ T cells to potently inhibit Foxp3-expressing induced regulatory T cell (Treg) development, while concomitantly promoting the differentiation of T helper 9 (TH9) cells via a IL-2-STAT5 and IL-4-STAT6 dependent pathway. Consistent with these findings, mice deficient in IL-36γ were protected from TH cell-driven intestinal inflammation and exhibited increased colonic Treg cells and diminished TH9 cells. Our findings thus reveal a fundamental contribution for the IL-36/IL-36R axis in regulating the Treg-TH9 cell balance with broad implications for TH cell-mediated disorders such as inflammatory bowel diseases, and particularly ulcerative colitis.

The gut epithelium acts to separate host immune cells from unrestricted interactions with the microbiota and other environmental stimuli. In response to epithelial damage or dysfunction, immune cells are activated to produce interleukin (IL)-22, which is involved in repair and protection of barrier surfaces. However, the specific pathways leading to IL-22 and associated antimicrobial peptide (AMP) production in response to intestinal tissue damage remain incompletely understood. Here, we define a critical IL-36/IL-23/IL-22 cytokine network that is instrumental for AMP production and host defense. Using a murine model of intestinal damage and repair, we show that IL-36γ is a potent inducer of IL-23 both in vitro and in vivo. IL-36γ-induced IL-23 required Notch2-dependent (CD11bCD103) dendritic cells (DCs), but not Batf3-dependent (CD11bCD103) DCs or CSF1R-dependent macrophages. The intracellular signaling cascade linking IL-36 receptor (IL-36R) to IL-23 production by DCs involved MyD88 and the NF-κB subunits c-Rel and p50. Consistent with in vitro observations, IL-36R- and IL-36γ-deficient mice exhibited dramatically reduced IL-23, IL-22, and AMP levels, and consequently failed to recover from acute intestinal damage. Interestingly, impaired recovery of mice deficient in IL-36R or IL-36γ could be rescued by treatment with exogenous IL-23. This recovery was accompanied by a restoration of IL-22 and AMP expression in the colon. Collectively, these data define a cytokine network involving IL-36γ, IL-23, and IL-22 that is activated in response to intestinal barrier damage and involved in providing critical host defense.

Specific components of the intestinal microbiota are capable of influencing immune responses such that a mutualistic relationship is established. In mice, colonization with segmented filamentous bacteria (SFB) induces Th17 cell differentiation in the intestine, yet the effector functions of IL-17A in response to SFB remain incompletely understood. Here, we report that colonization of mice with SFB-containing microbiota induced IL-17A- and CXCR2-dependent recruitment of neutrophils to the ileum. This response required adaptive immunity as Rag-deficient mice colonized with SFB-containing microbiota failed to induce IL-17A, CXCL1 and CXCL2, and displayed defective neutrophil recruitment to the ileum. Interestingly, neutrophil depletion in wild-type mice resulted in significantly augmented Th17 responses and SFB expansion, which correlated with impaired expression of IL-22 and antimicrobial peptides. These data provide novel insight into a dynamic IL-17A-CXCR2-neutrophil axis during acute SFB colonization and demonstrate a central role for neutrophils in limiting SFB expansion.

We infer that AGO administration inhibits TNBS-induced colitis in mice through HO-1 induction in macrophages. Consequently, oral administration of AGOs might be an important therapeutic strategy for inflammatory bowel disease.