The renin-angiotensin system (RAS) is a key component of cardiovascular physiology and homeostasis due to its influence on the regulation of electrolyte balance, blood pressure, vascular tone and cardiovascular remodeling. Deregulation of this system contributes significantly to the pathophysiology of cardiovascular and renal diseases. Numerous studies have generated new perspectives about a noncanonical and protective RAS pathway that counteracts the proliferative and hypertensive effects of the classical angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)/angiotensin (Ang) II/angiotensin type 1 receptor (AT1R) axis. The key components of this pathway are ACE2 and its products, Ang-(1-7) and Ang-(1-9). These two vasoactive peptides act through the Mas receptor (MasR) and AT2R, respectively. The ACE2/Ang-(1-7)/MasR and ACE2/Ang-(1-9)/AT2R axes have opposite effects to those of the ACE/Ang II/AT1R axis, such as decreased proliferation and cardiovascular remodeling, increased production of nitric oxide and vasodilation. A novel peptide from the noncanonical pathway, alamandine, was recently identified in rats, mice and humans. This heptapeptide is generated by catalytic action of ACE2 on Ang A or through a decarboxylation reaction on Ang-(1-7). Alamandine produces the same effects as Ang-(1-7), such as vasodilation and prevention of fibrosis, by interacting with Mas-related GPCR, member D (MrgD). In this article, we review the key roles of ACE2 and the vasoactive peptides Ang-(1-7), Ang-(1-9) and alamandine as counter-regulators of the ACE-Ang II axis as well as the biological properties that allow them to regulate blood pressure and cardiovascular and renal remodeling.

Glucocorticoids, such as dexamethasone, enhance protein breakdown via ubiquitin-proteasome system. However, the role of autophagy in organelle and protein turnover in the glucocorticoid-dependent atrophy program remains unknown. Here, we show that dexamethasone stimulates an early activation of autophagy in L6 myotubes depending on protein kinase, AMPK, and glucocorticoid receptor activity. Dexamethasone increases expression of several autophagy genes, including ATG5, LC3, BECN1, and SQSTM1 and triggers AMPK-dependent mitochondrial fragmentation associated with increased DNM1L protein levels. This process is required for mitophagy induced by dexamethasone. Inhibition of mitochondrial fragmentation by Mdivi-1 results in disrupted dexamethasone-induced autophagy/mitophagy. Furthermore, Mdivi-1 increases the expression of genes associated with the atrophy program, suggesting that mitophagy may serve as part of the quality control process in dexamethasone-treated L6 myotubes. Collectively, these data suggest a novel role for dexamethasone-induced autophagy/mitophagy in the regulation of the muscle atrophy program.

No abstract