Iron is an essential nutrient for cells. It is unknown how iron, after its import into the cytosol, is specifically delivered to iron-dependent processes in various cellular compartments. Here, we identify an essential function of the conserved cytosolic monothiol glutaredoxins Grx3 and Grx4 in intracellular iron trafficking and sensing. Depletion of Grx3/4 specifically impaired all iron-requiring reactions in the cytosol, mitochondria and nucleus including the synthesis of Fe/S clusters, heme and di-iron centers. These defects were caused by impairment of iron insertion into proteins and iron transfer to mitochondria, indicating that intracellular iron is not bioavailable, despite highly elevated cytosolic levels. The crucial task of Grx3/4 is mediated by a bridging, glutathione-containing Fe/S center which functions both as an iron sensor and in intracellular iron delivery. Collectively, our study uncovers an important role of monothiol glutaredoxins in cellular iron metabolism with a surprising connection to cellular redox and sulfur metabolisms.

Copper and iron are essential elements for cellular growth. Although bacteria have to overcome limitations of these metals by affine and selective uptake, excessive amounts of both metals are toxic for the cells. Here we investigated the influences of copper stress on iron homeostasis in Bacillus subtilis, and we present evidence that copper excess leads to imbalances of intracellular iron metabolism by disturbing assembly of iron-sulfur cofactors. Connections between copper and iron homeostasis were initially observed in microarray studies showing upregulation of Fur-dependent genes under conditions of copper excess. This effect was found to be relieved in a csoR mutant showing constitutive copper efflux. In contrast, stronger Fur-dependent gene induction was found in a copper efflux-deficient copA mutant. A significant induction of the PerR regulon was not observed under copper stress, indicating that oxidative stress did not play a major role under these conditions. Intracellular iron and copper quantification revealed that the total iron content was stable during different states of copper excess or efflux and hence that global iron limitation did not account for copperdependent Fur derepression. Strikingly, the microarray data for copper stress revealed a broad effect on the expression of genes coding for iron-sulfur cluster biogenesis (suf genes) and associated pathways such as cysteine biosynthesis and genes coding for iron-sulfur cluster proteins. Since these effects suggested an interaction of copper and iron-sulfur cluster maturation, a mutant with a conditional mutation of sufU, encoding the essential iron-sulfur scaffold protein in B. subtilis, was assayed for copper sensitivity, and its growth was found to be highly susceptible to copper stress. Further, different intracellular levels of SufU were found to influence the strength of Fur-dependent gene expression. By investigating the influence of copper on cluster-loaded SufU in vitro, Cu(I) was found to destabilize the scaffolded cluster at submicromolar concentrations. Thus, by interfering with iron-sulfur cluster formation, copper stress leads to enhanced expression of cluster scaffold and target proteins as well as iron and sulfur acquisition pathways, suggesting a possible feedback strategy to reestablish cluster biogenesis.

Objectives-Although cadmium (Cd) is an important and common environmental pollutant and has been linked to cardiovascular diseases, little is known about its effects in initial stages of atherosclerosis. Methods and Results-In the 195 young healthy women of the Atherosclerosis Risk Factors in Female Youngsters(ARFY) study, cadmium (Cd) level was independently associated with early atherosclerotic vessel wall thickening (intima-media thickness exceeding the 90th percentile of the distribution; multivariable OR 1.6[1.1.-2.3], Pϭ0.016). In line, Cd-fed ApoE knockout mice yielded a significantly increased aortic plaque surface compared to controls (9.5 versus 26.0 mm 2 , PϽ0.004). In vitro results indicate that physiological doses of Cd increase vascular endothelial permeability up to 6-fold by (1) inhibition of endothelial cell proliferation, and (2) induction of a caspase-independent but Bcl-xL-inhibitable form of cell death more than 72 hours after Cd addition. Both phenomena are preceded by Cd-induced DNA strand breaks and a cellular DNA damage response. Zinc showed a potent protective effect against deleterious effects of Cd both in the in vitro and human studies. Conclusion-Our research suggests Cd has promoting effects on early human and murine atherosclerosis, which were partly offset by high Zn concentrations. Key Words: cadmium, zinc Ⅲ endothelial Ⅲ dysfunction Ⅲ injury Ⅲ permeability Ⅲ necrosis Ⅲ ApoE Ⅲ atherosclerosis Ⅲ vascular Ⅲ pathophysiology Ⅲ risk factor Ⅲ intima media thickness Ⅲ apoptosis Ⅲ cell death S ince the use of Cd in manifold industrial applications, sources for and the amount of Cd uptake by humans has increased dramatically. Cd is, for example, released into the air through the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil) and the incineration of municipal waste (Environmental Protection Agency, 2000). The most relevant sources for Cd uptake by humans are, however, cigarette smoking (one cigarette contains Ϸ1 to 2 g; daily uptake of Cd Ϸ1 to 3 g per pack smoked) and food for nonsmokers (daily intake Ϸ30 g; daily uptake Ϸ1 to 3 g), as well as exhaust gases (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 1999). After inhalation or ingestion of Cd, it is transferred into the bloodstream (whole blood and serum Cd concentrations range between Ϸ0.2 and Ϸ20 nmol/L 1,2 ), where Cd is transported either as a free ion or protein-bound, eg, attached to albumin or metallothioneins. Cd is taken up by cells of Cd target organs (liver, kidneys, and testis) via solute carriers, calcium and manganese channels, and iron transporters. [3][4][5] In 2001, Abu-Hayyeh et al 6 demonstrated that the aortic vessel wall is another under-recognized target organ for Cd accumulation (aortic wall concentrations of Cd are up to 20 mol/ L). Epidemiologically, high Cd level was found to be associated with hypertension, stroke, and cardiac arrest, 7-9 but confirmatory data are sparse and the mechanistic basis for these interactions remains unclear. Houtman et al observed a higher than expected frequency of atherosclerosis in a...

The yeast genes MRS3 and MRS4 encode two members of the mitochondrial carrier family with high sequence similarity. To elucidate their function we utilized genome-wide expression profiling and found that both deletion and overexpression of MRS3/4 lead to up-regulation of several genes of the "iron regulon." We therefore analyzed the two major iron-utilizing processes, heme formation and Fe/S protein biosynthesis in vivo, in organello (intact mitochondria), and in vitro (mitochondrial extracts). Radiolabeling of yeast cells with 55 Fe revealed a clear correlation between MRS3/4 expression levels and the efficiency of these biosynthetic reactions indicating a role of the carriers in utilization and/or transport of iron in vivo. Similar effects on both heme formation and Fe/S protein biosynthesis were seen in organello using mitochondria isolated from cells grown under iron-limiting conditions. The correlation between MRS3/4 expression levels and the efficiency of the two iron-utilizing processes was lost upon detergent lysis of mitochondria. As no significant changes in the mitochondrial membrane potential were observed upon overexpression or deletion of MRS3/4, our results suggest that Mrs3/4p carriers are directly involved in mitochondrial iron uptake. Mrs3/4p function in mitochondrial iron transport becomes evident under ironlimiting conditions only, indicating that the two carriers do not represent the sole system for mitochondrial iron acquisition. Proteins belonging to the mitochondrial carrier family (MCF)1 form a large group of structurally related proteins, which exist exclusively in eukaryotes (for reviews, see Refs. 1-3). Typical mitochondrial carrier proteins have a molecular mass of about 35 kDa, contain six membrane-spanning segments, and have a tripartite structure. Each of the three parts is made up of about 100 amino acids and shares sequence homology to the other modules of the proteins. Most members of the MCF are integral proteins of the mitochondrial inner membrane and function in the shuttling of various metabolites and cofactors between the cytosol and mitochondria. The substrates of mitochondrial carrier proteins are rather diverse in size and composition, ranging from protons transported by the uncoupling protein up to large molecules such as ATP and ADP exchanged by the ADP/ATP carrier. Other members of this family are responsible for the transport of phosphate, citrate, fumarate/succinate, carnitine/acylcarnitine, flavine adenine dinucleotide (FAD), and other substrates. One member of the MCF has been located in peroxisomes where it was shown to transport ATP in exchange for AMP (4). The genome of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae contains 35 open reading frames that encode members of the MCF (5-7).The genes can be divided into five subclasses. (i) The functions of the encoded proteins are known, and their transport activities were investigated by expression in Escherichia coli and reconstitution of the purified proteins in liposome vesicles (e.g. Mir1p/PiC, phosphate (8); Arg11p/ORC, o...