Tyrosine, phenylalanine and tryptophan are the three aromatic amino acids (AAA) involved in protein synthesis. These amino acids and their metabolism are linked to the synthesis of a variety of secondary metabolites, a subset of which are involved in numerous anabolic pathways responsible for the synthesis of pigment compounds, plant hormones and biological polymers, to name a few. In addition, these metabolites derived from the AAA pathways mediate the transmission of nervous signals, quench reactive oxygen species in the brain, and are involved in the vast palette of animal coloration among others pathways. The AAA and metabolites derived from them also have integral roles in the health of both plants and animals. This review delineates the de novo biosynthesis of the AAA by microbes and plants, and the branching out of AAA metabolism into major secondary metabolic pathways in plants such as the phenylpropanoid pathway. Organisms that do not possess the enzymatic machinery for the de novo synthesis of AAA must obtain these primary metabolites from their diet. Therefore, the metabolism of AAA by the host animal and the resident microflora are important for the health of all animals. In addition, the AAA metabolite-mediated host-pathogen interactions in general, as well as potential beneficial and harmful AAA-derived compounds produced by gut bacteria are discussed. Apart from the AAA biosynthetic pathways in plants and microbes such as the shikimate pathway and the tryptophan pathway, this review also deals with AAA catabolism in plants, AAA degradation via the monoamine and kynurenine pathways in animals, and AAA catabolism via the 3-aryllactate and kynurenine pathways in animal-associated microbes. Emphasis will be placed on structural and functional aspects of several key AAA-related enzymes, such as shikimate synthase, chorismate mutase, anthranilate synthase, tryptophan synthase, tyrosine aminotransferase, dopachrome tautomerase, radical dehydratase, and type III CoA-transferase. The past development and current potential for interventions including the development of herbicides and antibiotics that target key enzymes in AAA-related pathways, as well as AAA-linked secondary metabolism leading to antimicrobials are also discussed.

Background:Energy conservation by Na ϩ -translocating ferredoxin oxidation requires a low potential ferredoxin.

Most studies on amino acids are focused on the proteinogenic amino acids given their essential roles in protein synthesis among other pathways. In addition to 20 ubiquitous amino acids used in protein synthesis, plants synthesize over 250 non-proteinogenic amino acids that are involved in the synthesis of compounds that are anti-herbivory, anti-microbial, response to abiotic stresses, nitrogen storage, toxins against both vertebrates/invertebrates, and plant hormones among others. One such non-proteinogenic acid is β-alanine, which is known mainly for studies on humans. β-Alanine forms a part of pantothenate (vitamin B5), which is incorporated into the universal carbon shuttling compounds Coenzyme A and acyl carrier protein, in all organisms including plants. The focus of this review, however, is on the biosynthesis, metabolism, and the role of β-alanine in plants. There are several functions of β-alanine unique to plants. It is accumulated as a generic stress response molecule involved in protecting plants from temperature extremes, hypoxia, drought, heavy metal shock, and some biotic stresses. There is evidence of its participation in lignin biosynthesis and ethylene production in some species. It is further converted to the osmoprotective compound β-alanine betaine in some species and converted to the antioxidant homoglutathione in others. The polyamines spermine/spermidine, propionate and uracil have been shown to be precursors of β-alanine in plants. However, plants vary in terms of their biosynthetic pathways, and the primary metabolism of β-alanine is far from settled.

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Pathogenic antibiotic resistant bacteria pose one of the most important health challenges of the 21st century. The overuse and abuse of antibiotics coupled with the natural evolutionary processes of bacteria has led to this crisis. Only incremental advances in antibiotic development have occurred over the last 30 years. Novel classes of molecules, such as engineered antibodies, antibiotic enhancers, siderophore conjugates, engineered phages, photo-switchable antibiotics, and genome editing facilitated by the CRISPR/Cas system, are providing new avenues to facilitate the development of antimicrobial therapies. The informatics revolution is transforming research and development efforts to discover novel antibiotics. The explosion of nanotechnology and micro-engineering is driving the invention of antimicrobial materials, enabling the cultivation of “uncultivable” microbes and creating specific and rapid diagnostic technologies. Finally, a revival in the ecological aspects of microbial disease management, the growth of prebiotics, and integrated management based on the “One Health” model, provide additional avenues to manage this health crisis. These, and future scientific and technological developments, must be coupled and aligned with sound policy and public awareness to address the risks posed by rising antibiotic resistance.