This system could assist surgeons in preserving the facial nerve and potentially contribute to enhanced patient safety in the surgery.

We confirmed that depth perception in AR could be improved by the proposed seamless switching between AR and VR, and providing an indication of the minimum distance also facilitated the surgical tasks.

STAMP method had comparable errors with minimal invasiveness. Our new method potentially enables routine use of image-guided surgery.

The proposed BB-STAMP is a promising method for replicating exactly what is performed during simulation without using a surgical navigation system.

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