Several trace elements discharged by the petrochemical industry are toxic to humans and the ecosystem. In this study, we assessed airborne trace elements in the vicinity of the Map Ta Phut petrochemical industrial complex in Thailand by transplanting the lichen Parmotrema tinctorum to eight industrial, two rural, and one clean air sites between October 2013 and June 2014. After 242 days, the concentrations of As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Ti, V, and Zn in lichens at most industrial sites were higher than those at the rural and the control sites; in particular, As, Cu, Mo, Sb, V, and Zn were significantly higher than at the control site (p < 0.05). Contamination factors (CFs) indicated that Cd, Cu, Mo, and Sb, which have severe health impacts, heavily contaminated at most industrial sites. Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that most elements were associated with industry, with lesser contributions from traffic and agriculture. Based on the pollution load indexes (PLIs), two industrial sites were highly polluted, five were moderately polluted, and one had a low pollution level, whereas the pollution load at the rural sites was comparable to background levels. This study reinforces the utility of lichens as cost-effective biomonitors of airborne elements, suitable for use in developing countries, where adequate numbers of air monitoring instruments are unavailable due to financial, technical, and policy constraints.

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Motor vehicles passing through natural areas could contribute to the air pollution that most likely causes biodiversity losses and decreases air quality. This study assessed the impact of tourism on atmospheric metal pollution in Khao Yai National Park (KYNP), Thailand. Native thalli of the epiphytic lichen Parmotrema tinctorum were collected during the rainy period at a total of eleven sampling sites: three sites in forested (no traffic), four sites in accommodation (low-moderate traffic) and four sites in parking (moderate-high traffic) areas in KYNP. Nine traffic-related metals, including As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Pb, Sb, V and Zn, were detected using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The concentrations of most metals did not show significant differences between the higher traffic intensity areas and the no traffic area, and the concentrations of the metals were in the range of their background concentrations. Only Cr and V, metals related to motor vehicles, were identified at the accommodation sites at significantly higher concentrations (Cr=3.4 µg/g, V=1.33 µg/g) than their baseline concentrations (Cr=1.4 µg/g, V=0.96 µg/g). These two metals have adverse effects on humans, plants, lichens and other organisms. Bioaccumulation ratios (B ratios) indicated that most metals at most sampling sites did not bioaccumulate. No metal demonstrated high or severe bioaccumulation. This result suggests that the impact of tourism on atmospheric metal pollution in the rainy period at the KYNP was modest. It also affirms the ability of lichen as an effective tool for assessing atmospheric contamination in natural areas.

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