Even severe jaundice should not be considered as an indication for PBD before pancreaticoduodenectomy, as PBD increases infections and postoperative morbidity, therefore delaying definite treatment.

Retained surgical sponges (RSS) are an avoidable complication following surgical operations. RSS can elicit either an early exudative-type reaction or a late aseptic fibrous tissue reaction. They may remain asymptomatic for long time; when present, symptomatology varies substantially and includes septic complications (abscess formation, peritonitis) or fibrous reaction resulting in adhesion formation or fistulation into adjacent hollow organs or externally. Plain radiograph may be useful for the diagnosis; however, computed tomography is the method of choice to establish correct diagnosis preoperatively. Removal of RSS is always indicated to prevent further complications. This is usually accomplished by open surgery; rarely, endoscopic or laparoscopic removal may be successful. Prevention is of key importance to avoid not only morbidity and even mortality but also medicolegal consequences. Preventive measures include careful counting, use of sponges marked with a radiopaque marker, avoidance of use of small sponges during abdominal procedures, careful examination of the abdomen by the operating surgeon before closure, radiograph in the operating theater (either routinely or selectively), and recently, usage of barcode and radiofrequency identification technology.

In patients with a bleeding ulcer, after successful endoscopic hemostasis, despite equipotent acid suppression, pantoprazole continuous infusion was superior to somatostatin to prevent bleeding recurrence and quick disappearance of the endoscopic stigmata. Nevertheless, no differences were seen in the need for surgery and mortality.

Despite its relatively benign biological behavior, papillary thyroid cancer is frequently associated with cervical lymph node metastases at the time of diagnosis. These metastases have a limited impact on overall survival, but are recognized as a significant risk factor for locoregional recurrence of the disease. This may significantly alter quality of life, and may require further therapeutic interventions which may be associated with increased morbidity. Therefore, preoperative identification of cervical lymph node metastases is of particular importance and allows optimal and effective treatment at the time of initial surgery. Clinical examination remains important but lacks sensitivity. Neck ultrasonography is currently the most useful method to detect cervical lymphadenopathy. Fine-needle aspiration (for cytology and thyroglobulin measurement), usually under ultrasonographic guidance, may confirm the diagnosis of lymph node metastases. Other imaging methods (including computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, positron emission tomography) should be used selectively. A compartmentoriented cervical lymph node dissection should be performed at the time of thyroidectomy if preoperative evaluation reveals cervical lymphadenopathy.

Severe acute pancreatitis is a potentially life-threatening disease. Pancreatic necrosis is associated with an aggravated prognosis, while superimposed infection is almost always lethal without surgery. Bacterial translocation mainly from the gut is the most widely accepted mechanism in the pathogenesis of infected pancreatic necrosis. Infected pancreatic necrosis should be suspected in the presence of the usual markers of systemic inflammation (i.e., fever and leukocytosis), organ failure, or a protracted severe clinical course. The diagnostic method of choice to confirm the diagnosis of pancreatic necrosis is contrast-enhanced computed tomography, where necrotic areas are evidenced as regions without enhancement. The presence of pancreatic necrotic infection should be based on a combination of clinical manifestations, results of laboratory investigation (mainly increased levels of CRP and / or procalcitonin), and can be confirmed by image-guided fine-needle aspiration and gram stain /culture of the aspirates. Surgery remains the treatment of choice for the management of infected pancreatic necrosis and involves open necrosectomy (debridement) and wide drainage of the peripancreatic areas, often in association with continuous irrigation. Planned reoperations may be required to achieve complete removal of the necrotic / infected material. The timing of surgery is of paramount importance; ideally, surgery should be performed after 2 or 3 weeks from the onset of pancreatitis. Recently, various minimally invasive approaches have been described, but they have not been compared in prospective trials with the classical open surgery. Antibiotic therapy is routinely used in patients with infected necrotizing pancreatitis, in conjunction with surgical debridement; its role, however, in the management of patients with sterile necrosis is recently questioned. Nutritional support should be taken into consideration in these patients; enteral nutrition should be preferred over total parenteral nutrition to improve the anatomical and functional integrity of the gut mucosa, thereby preventing bacterial translocation.