Early human food cultures were plant-based. Major religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism have recommended a vegetarian way of life since their conception. The recorded history of vegetarian nutrition started in the sixth century bc by followers of the Orphic mysteries. The Greek philosopher Pythagoras is considered the father of ethical vegetarianism. The Pythagorean way of life was followed by a number of important personalities and influenced vegetarian nutrition until the 19th century. In Europe, vegetarian nutrition more or less disappeared during the Middle Ages. In the Renaissance era and in the Age of Enlightenment, various personalities practiced vegetarianism. The first vegetarian society was started in England in 1847. The International Vegetarian Society was founded in 1908 and the first vegan society began in 1944. Prominent vegetarians during this time included Sylvester Graham, John Harvey Kellogg, and Maximilian Bircher-Benner. A paradigm shift occurred at the turn of the 21st century. The former prejudices that vegetarianism leads to malnutrition were replaced by scientific evidence showing that vegetarian nutrition reduces the risk of most contemporary diseases. Today, vegetarian nutrition has a growing international following and is increasingly accepted. The main reasons for this trend are health concerns and ethical, ecologic, and social issues. The future of vegetarian nutrition is promising because sustainable nutrition is crucial for the well-being of humankind. An increasing number of people do not want animals to suffer nor do they want climate change; they want to avoid preventable diseases and to secure a livable future for generations to come.

Objective: Evaluation of dietary intakes and lifestyle factors of German vegans.Design: Cross-sectional study. Settings: Germany. Subjects: Subjects were recruited through journal advertisements. Of 868 volunteers, only 154 participated in all study segments (pre-and main questionnaire, two 9-day food frequency questionnaires, blood sampling) and fulfilled the following study criteria: vegan dietary intake at least 1 year prior to study start, minimum age of 18 y, no pregnancy or childbirth during the last 12 months. Interventions: No interventions. Results: All the 154 subjects had a comparatively low BMI (median 21.2 kg/m 2 ), with an extremely low mean consumption of alcohol (0.7773.14 g/day) and tobacco (96.8% were nonsmokers). Mean energy intake (total collective: 8.2372.77 MJ) was higher in strict vegans than in moderate ones. Mean carbohydrate, fat, and protein intakes in proportion to energy (total collective: 57.1:29.7:11.6%) agreed with current recommendations. Recommended intakes for vitamins and minerals were attained through diet, except for calcium (median intake: 81.1% of recommendation), iodine (median: 40.6%), and cobalamin (median: 8.8%). For the male subgroup, the intake of a small amount of food of animal origin improved vitamin and mineral nutrient densities (except for zinc), whereas this was not the case for the female subgroup (except for calcium). Conclusion: In order to reach favourable vitamin and mineral intakes, vegans should consider taking supplements containing riboflavin, cobalamin, calcium, and iodine. Intake of total energy and protein should also be improved.

Background: Because reference values for vitamin B12 concentrations and vitamin B12-binding capacities for pregnant women have not been established, the reference values for nonpregnant women are often applied to assess vitamin B12 status. The aim of the present study was to describe ranges of biochemical indices of vitamin B12 status, including red blood cell (RBC) vitamin B12, saturated and unsaturated cobalamin-binding proteins, and binding capacities in all trimesters of uncomplicated pregnancy. Methods: A total of 39 healthy pregnant women with long-term daily intake of vitamin B12 >2.6 μg/day and uncomplicated pregnancies participated in the study throughout their pregnancies. RBCs and serum vitamin B12, holo-haptocorrin, unsaturated cobalamin-binding proteins, unsaturated and total vitamin B12-binding capacities, total homocysteine (tHcy), and RBC count were assessed in weeks 9–12, 20–22, and 36–38 of gestation. Results: Significant changes in vitamin B12 status occurred in the course of pregnancy. Serum vitamin B12 concentrations and percentage of saturation of vitamin B12-binding proteins decreased steadily throughout pregnancy. In the third trimester, 35% of the participants had serum vitamin B12 concentrations <150 pmol/L and 68.6% had <15% saturation of total vitamin B12-binding capacities, but no women had RBC vitamin B12 concentrations <148 pmol/L. However, the decrease in these indices was not associated with reduced hemoglobin concentrations or RBC count or with increased tHcy concentrations. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that the reference values for vitamin B12 status in nonpregnant women may not be applicable to pregnant women.

Health effects of vegetarian and vegan diets are well known. However, data is sparse in terms of their appropriateness for the special nutritional demands of endurance runners. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the health status of vegetarian (VER) and vegan endurance runners (VGR) and compare it to omnivorous endurance runners (OR). A total of 245 female and male recreational runners completed an online survey. Health status was assessed by measuring health-related indicators (body weight, mental health, chronic diseases, and hypersensitivity reactions, medication intake) and health-related behavior (smoking habits, supplement intake, food choice, healthcare utilization). Data analysis was performed by using non-parametric ANOVA and MANOVA. There were 109 OR, 45 VER and 91 VGR. Significant differences (p < 0.05) were determined for the following findings: (i) body weight for VER and VGR was less than for OR, (ii) VGR had highest food choice scores, and (iii) VGR reported the lowest prevalences of allergies. There was no association (p > 0.05) between diet and mental health, medication intake, smoking habits, supplement intake, and healthcare utilization. These findings support the notion that adhering to vegetarian kinds of diet, in particular to a vegan diet, is associated with a good health status and, thus, at least an equal alternative to an omnivorous diet for endurance runners.