In this article, the authors review the evolving state of diversity in the field of radiology. The authors discuss several early and recent historical legislative milestones that increased the equitable delivery of health care in the United States, such as Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which ensured that funds for Medicare reimbursement would be available only to desegregated hospitals. Furthermore, the authors examine the current state of diversity and representation in radiology, in which underrepresented minorities represent 8.3% of training and practicing radiologists, and women represent 27.8% of radiologists. Finally, the authors present arguments for diversity in the current medical education system, analyze hurdles to increasing representation in radiology, and consider the future of diversity and inclusiveness in the field.

BackgroundWe describe hospital-based management of acute ischaemic stroke patients in 2010–2013 in Barbados, by comparing documented treatment given in the single tertiary public hospital with international guideline recommendations.MethodsEvidence-based stroke management guidelines were identified through a systematic literature search. Comparisons were made between these guidelines and documented diagnostic practice (all strokes) and prescribed medication (ischaemic stroke only), using a combination of key informant interviews and national stroke registry data for 2010–2013.ResultsSeveral published international guidelines for the acute management of ischaemic stroke recommended patient management in a dedicated stroke unit or nearest hospital specialised in stroke care. Further, patients should receive clinical diagnosis, CT brain scan, specialist evaluation by a multidisciplinary team and, if eligible, thrombolysis with alteplase within 3–3.5 h of symptom onset. Subsequent secondary prophylaxis, with a platelet aggregation inhibitor and a statin was advised.Barbados had no stroke unit or stroke team, and no official protocol for acute stroke management during the study period. Most of the 1735 stroke patients were managed by emergency physicians at presentation; if admitted, they were managed on general medical wards. Most had a CT scan (1646; 94.9%). Of 1406 registered ischaemic stroke patients, only 6 (0.4%) had been thrombolysed, 521 (37.1%) received aspirin within 24 h of admission and 670 (47.7%) were prescribed aspirin on discharge.ConclusionsAcute ischaemic stroke diagnosis was consistent with international recommendations, although this was less evident for treatment. While acknowledging the difficulty in implementing international guidelines in a low-resource setting, there is scope for improvement in acute ischaemic stroke management and/or its documentation in Barbados. A stroke unit was established in August 2013 and written clinical protocols for acute stroke care were in development at the time of the study; future registry data will evaluate their impact. Our findings have implications for other low-resource settings with high stroke burden.

Alcohol withdrawal syndrome (AWS) is characterized by neuronal hyperexcitability, autonomic dysregulation, and severe negative emotion. The nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) likely plays a prominent role in the neurological processes underlying these symptoms as it is the main viscerosensory nucleus in the brain. The NTS receives visceral interoceptive inputs, influences autonomic outputs, and has strong connections to the limbic system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis to maintain homeostasis. Our prior analysis of single neuronal gene expression data from the NTS shows that neurons exist in heterogeneous transcriptional states that form distinct functional subphenotypes. Our working model conjectures that the allostasis secondary to alcohol dependence causes peripheral and central biological network decompensation in acute abstinence resulting in neurovisceral feedback to the NTS that substantially contributes to the observed AWS. We collected single noradrenergic and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) neurons and microglia from rat NTS and measured a subset of their transcriptome as pooled samples in an alcohol withdrawal time series. Inflammatory subphenotypes predominate at certain time points, and GLP-1 subphenotypes demonstrated hyperexcitability post-withdrawal. We hypothesize such inflammatory and anxiogenic signaling contributes to alcohol dependence via negative reinforcement. Targets to mitigate such dysregulation and treat dependence can be identified from this dataset.