Zearalenone (ZEN), a widely known mycotoxin, is mainly produced by various Fusarium species, and it is a potent estrogenic metabolite that affects reproductive health in livestock and humans. In this study, the molecular mechanisms of toxicity and cell damage induced by ZEN in GC-1 spermatogonia (spg) cells were evaluated. Our results showed that cell viability decreased and apoptosis increased in a dose-dependent manner when GC-1 spg cells were exposed to ZEN. In addition, the key proteins involved in apoptosis, cleaved caspase-3 and -8, BAD, BAX, and phosphorylation of p53 and ERK1/2, were significantly increased in ZEN-exposed GC-1 spg cells for 24 h, and cytochrome c was released from mitochondria by ZEN. Interestingly, ZEN also triggered autophagy in GC-1 spg cells. The expression levels of the autophagy-related genes Atg5, Atg3, Beclin 1, LC3, Ulk1, Bnip 3, and p62 were significantly higher in ZEN-treated GC-1 spg cells, and the protein levels of both LC3A/B and Atg12 were remarkably increased in a dose-dependent manner in ZEN-exposed GC-1 spg cells compared to the control. In addition, immunostaining results showed that ZEN-treated groups showed a remarkable increase in LC 3A/B positive puncta as compared to the control in a dose-dependent manner based on confocal microscopy analysis in GC-1 spg cells. Our findings suggest that ZEN has toxic effects on tGC-1 spg cells and induces both apoptosis and autophagy.

South Korea has a temperate climate with four distinct seasons. However, summers are extremely hot and humid, which negatively affects industrial animal production. Hanwoo are native cattle that have traditionally been raised in the natural environment of Korea. The present study investigated the effects of birth and lactation season on the birth and weaning weights of Hanwoo calves. Data were collected from 100 local breeding farms between 2016 and 2021. A total of 56,970 (males, 29,530; females, 27,440) Hanwoo calves were classified according to sex or birth and weaning season (March-May, spring; June-August, summer; September-November, fall; and December-February, winter). The birth weight of Hanwoo calves differed according to the birth season. As such, birth weight of the summer-born calves was the lowest. Additionally, the 90-day weaning weight was positively correlated with birth weight. Interestingly, however, the 90-day weaning weight was not related to the birth season but was related to the 2-month seasonal effect during the lactation period. Furthermore, the 90-day weaning weight was the lowest during the summer lactation period. In the beef cattle industry, daily weight gain is an important economic characteristic related to feed efficiency and growth. Our findings will contribute the management of Hanwoo cattle and analysis of changes in economic characteristics due to high temperatures.

South Korean summers are hot and humid, negatively affecting the pig industry. This study investigated the effects of season on farrowing rate, litter size, litter per sow per year, and piglets per sow per year on pig farms. The data were collected from local pig farms in Jeongeup-si, South Korea. The four seasons were classified as spring (March-May), summer (June-August), fall (September-November), and winter (December-February). The temperatures of the farrowing houses in summer differed for each of the four pig farms analyzed. Farm 1 and farm 2 regulated their temperatures. In contrast, farm 3 and farm 4 did not control their temperatures. Consequently, the pig production efficiency of farm 1 and farm 2 did not differ between the four seasons. Although the farrowing rate and litter size did not differ with the season, the number of weaning piglets was significantly reduced in the summer on farm 3 and farm 4. In farm 3, the farrowing interval was significantly increased, and the litter per sow per year was the highest in winter. In addition, the litter per sow per year was significantly lower in the summer at farm 4. Furthermore, the number of piglets per sow per year was significantly reduced in the summer at farm 3 and farm 4. These data indicate that the thermoregulation of farrowing houses during the summer is important for efficient pig production in Korea.