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Pines (Pinus spp.; Pinaceae) are native to most of the Northern Hemisphere and are grown in most temperate and subtropical regions of the world. These evergreen, coniferous, resinous trees can grow to heights of 3-80 m. Pine, particularly its bark, has a long history of use in traditional medicine systems. For example, pine tree bark was used for medicinal purposes by Native Americans for treating coughs and, using poultice made from the inner bark, to treat wounds. European explorers used pine bark for treating scurvy: maritime pine (P. pinaster Aiton), discovered by a French explorer in the 18th century, has a high concentration of vitamin C in its bark.Today, pine bark extracts are sourced from different species of pine grown in different countries. Manufactured products containing pine bark extracts are marketed under different proprietary names, such as Pycnogenol ® , Flavangenol ® , Oligopin ® (from P. pinaster; France), PineXol ® (from P. densiflora Siebold & Zucc.; Korea) and Enzogenol ® (from P. radiata; New Zealand). 1,2 Different proprietary products may contain different quantities of procyanidins, the primary active components of pine bark extract.Pycnogenol ® is a proprietary product derived from French maritime pine (P. pinaster Aiton) and is the most extensively studied pine bark extract in terms of clinical and pharmacological effects. Pycnogenol ® was one of the first pine bark products launched globally, and sales data indicated that it was one of the top 100 top-selling herbal dietary supplements in the USA from 2013 to 2015. 3 Common namesCluster pine, maritime pine, turpentine [English], among others.

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Tongkat Ali (Eurycoma longifolia Jack; Simaroubaceae) is native to Southeast Asian countries, such as Malaysia, Indonesia, and Vietnam, and is also found in some areas of Cambodia, Myanmar, Laos and Thailand. The plant is a tall, slender, shrubby tree; the leaves are pinnate, and the flowers are tiny and reddish. It is used in traditional medicine for its aphrodisiac effects and for treating malaria. Most parts of the plant, and root extracts in particular, have a history of human consumption and use for various health reasons. Decoctions of Eurycoma longifolia leaves have been used for washing itches, while the rootbark is used traditionally to treat diarrhoea and fever. Root extracts are used for sexual dysfunction, syphilis, glandular swelling, malaria, fever, aches, exercise recovery, increased energy, increased strength, ageing, cancer, diabetes, leukaemia, osteoporosis, stress, and anxiety; additionally, root extracts are used as an aphrodisiac, antibiotic, appetite stimulant and health supplement. Traditionally, tongkat ali is used by men; however, it is also reputed to have aphrodisiac properties in females.Approximately 21 000 kg of Eurycoma longifolia is harvested each year, and there is substantial demand for the raw material, giving rise to the potential for financially motivated adulteration of raw material and manufactured products. For example, due to tongkat ali's reputation for effects on libido, intentional product adulteration with phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors (tadalafil, sildenafil, vardenafil) has been reported. Common namesTongkat ali, tongkat baginda, setunjang bumi, penawar pahit, [Malay]; long jack, Malaysian ginseng, eurycoma root [English] and many others. N.B. the name tongkat ali is also sometimes used to refer to Smilax myosotiflora A.DC. [Smilacaceae] and Polyalthia bullata King [Annonaceae], which are entirely different species. Accidental botanical substitution with plant species with similar common names has occurred.