The domestication of cattle, sheep and goats had already taken place in the Near East by the eighth millennium bc. Although there would have been considerable economic and nutritional gains from using these animals for their milk and other products from living animals-that is, traction and wool-the first clear evidence for these appears much later, from the late fifth and fourth millennia bc. Hence, the timing and region in which milking was first practised remain unknown. Organic residues preserved in archaeological pottery have provided direct evidence for the use of milk in the fourth millennium in Britain, and in the sixth millennium in eastern Europe, based on the delta(13)C values of the major fatty acids of milk fat. Here we apply this approach to more than 2,200 pottery vessels from sites in the Near East and southeastern Europe dating from the fifth to the seventh millennia bc. We show that milk was in use by the seventh millennium; this is the earliest direct evidence to date. Milking was particularly important in northwestern Anatolia, pointing to regional differences linked with conditions more favourable to cattle compared to other regions, where sheep and goats were relatively common and milk use less important. The latter is supported by correlations between the fat type and animal bone evidence.

SummaryThe archaeological documentation of the development of sedentary farming societies in Anatolia is not yet mirrored by a genetic understanding of the human populations involved, in contrast to the spread of farming in Europe [1, 2, 3]. Sedentary farming communities emerged in parts of the Fertile Crescent during the tenth millennium and early ninth millennium calibrated (cal) BC and had appeared in central Anatolia by 8300 cal BC [4]. Farming spread into west Anatolia by the early seventh millennium cal BC and quasi-synchronously into Europe, although the timing and process of this movement remain unclear. Using genome sequence data that we generated from nine central Anatolian Neolithic individuals, we studied the transition period from early Aceramic (Pre-Pottery) to the later Pottery Neolithic, when farming expanded west of the Fertile Crescent. We find that genetic diversity in the earliest farmers was conspicuously low, on a par with European foraging groups. With the advent of the Pottery Neolithic, genetic variation within societies reached levels later found in early European farmers. Our results confirm that the earliest Neolithic central Anatolians belonged to the same gene pool as the first Neolithic migrants spreading into Europe. Further, genetic affinities between later Anatolian farmers and fourth to third millennium BC Chalcolithic south Europeans suggest an additional wave of Anatolian migrants, after the initial Neolithic spread but before the Yamnaya-related migrations. We propose that the earliest farming societies demographically resembled foragers and that only after regional gene flow and rising heterogeneity did the farming population expansions into Europe occur.

Sheep were among the first domesticated animals, but their demographic history is little understood. Here we analyzed nuclear polymorphism and mitochondrial data (mtDNA) from ancient central and west Anatolian sheep dating from Epipaleolithic to late Neolithic, comparatively with modern-day breeds and central Asian Neolithic/Bronze Age sheep (OBI). Analyzing ancient nuclear data, we found that Anatolian Neolithic sheep (ANS) are genetically closest to present-day European breeds relative to Asian breeds, a conclusion supported by mtDNA haplogroup frequencies. In contrast, OBI showed higher genetic affinity to present-day Asian breeds. These results suggest that the east-west genetic structure observed in present-day breeds had already emerged by 6000 BCE, hinting at multiple sheep domestication episodes or early wild introgression in southwest Asia. Furthermore, we found that ANS are genetically distinct from all modern breeds. Our results suggest that European and Anatolian domestic sheep gene pools have been strongly remolded since the Neolithic.

22Sheep was among the first domesticated animals, but its demographic history is little 23 understood. Here we present combined analyses of mitochondrial and nuclear polymorphism 24 data from ancient central and west Anatolian sheep dating to the Late Glacial and early 25 Holocene. We observe loss of mitochondrial haplotype diversity around 7500 BCE during the 26 early Neolithic, consistent with a domestication-related bottleneck. Post-7000 BCE, 27 mitochondrial haplogroup diversity increases, compatible with admixture from other 28 domestication centres and/or from wild populations. Analysing archaeogenomic data, we 29 further find that Anatolian Neolithic sheep (ANS) are genetically closest to present-day 30 European breeds, and especially those from central and north Europe. Our results indicate that 31 Asian contribution to south European breeds in the post-Neolithic era, possibly during the 32 Bronze Age, may explain this pattern.33 34 35 36 65 traits across the globe, especially within the last 5 millennia, as part of the secondary products 66 revolution 18,19 . Although the first domesticated sheep were likely used for their meat and 67 possibly their milk 20 , they started to be increasingly exploited for their wool in Bronze Age SW 68 Asia, during the 3rd millennium BCE 21 . Intriguingly, a comparison of DNA retroelements 69 across modern breeds implies an expansion of SW Asian lineages, estimated to date back to the 70 Bronze Age; according to this model, SW Asian sheep with desired traits, such as fine wool, 71 were introduced into local breeds across the globe 22 . A recent ancient DNA study reports 72 evidence consistent with novel breeds being introduced to Bronze Age Europe, coinciding with 73 archaeological evidence for the introduction of wool to this continent 21 . In later periods, export 74 and admixture of selected sheep breeds into local stocks continued 11 . Indeed, the most recent 75 common ancestor of domestic sheep breeds has been inferred to date back only 800 generations 76 ago 11 -an unexpectedly recent estimate. 77 4We currently lack a solid demographic history model to explain these observations: high 78 diversity, clear genetic structure, and recent coalescence times. What is missing is genetic data 79 on the initial steps of domestication and characterisation of the early domesticated sheep gene 80 pool. Here we present a first attempt to bridge this gap, studying ancient DNA from Neolithic 81 period sheep remains from Anatolia, one of the possible domestication centres. Analysing both 82 mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences and nuclear polymorphism data, we find support for 83 the notions that the present-day domestic sheep population has multiple origins, and also that 84 the sheep gene pool changed considerably since the Neolithic period. 85 86 Results 87 We analysed DNA from c.200 archaeological sheep bone and tooth samples from early 88 Holocene Anatolia, originating from six different sites from central and west Anatolia and 89spanning the Epipaleolithic, Neolithic, and Ch...

The primary aim of this study was to establish for the very first time the results on the rodent fauna gathered from the ongoing Neolithic excavations at the Tepecik-Çiftlik site in southern Cappadocia (Niğde, Turkey). So far, the fauna being study is represented by species of arvicolines (Microtus cf. arvalis and Arvicola cf. amphibius), murines (Mus cf. musculus), sousliks (Spermophilus xanthoprymnus), hamsters (Mesocricetus brandti) and mole-rats (Spalax xanthodon), and their remains are described in detail. Paleoenvironmental assumption based on common preferences of the fauna elements indicates, at first sight, a rather dry steppe environment with sparse plant cover or perennial short grasses. On the other hand, the presence of Arvicola cf. amphibius points out streams and marsh-like vegetation cover with bodies of water . The predation or burn marks observed on some specimens and the presence of subterraneous rodents raise questions concerning their taphonomy.