No abstract

This perspective deals with the coupling of ionic and electronic transport in organic electronic devices, focusing on electrolyte-gated transistors. These include electrolyte-gated organic field-effect transistors (EG-OFETs) and organic electrochemical transistors (OECTs). EG-OFETs, based on molecules and polymers, can be operated at low electrical bias (about 1 V or below) and permit unprecedented charge carrier densities within the transistor channel. OECTs can be operated in aqueous environment as efficient ion-to-electron converters, thus providing an interface between the worlds of biology and electronics. The exploration and the exploitation of coupled ionic and electronic transport in organic materials brings together different disciplines such as materials science, physics, chemistry, electrochemistry, organic electronics and biology.

The flower derivative) action, which describes the actual degrees of freedom of a (higher derivative) lheoly of gravity quadratic in the scalar and Ricci curvatures, is found. Key steps are a Legendre transform and a suitable diagonalidon procedure. Some consequences of this insight are outlined.

The interaction of a living organism with external foreign agents is a central issue for its survival and adaptation to the environment. Nanosafety should be considered within this perspective, and it should be examined that how different organisms interact with engineered nanomaterials (NM) by either mounting a defensive response or by physiologically adapting to them. Herein, the interaction of NM with one of the major biological systems deputed to recognition of and response to foreign challenges, i.e., the immune system, is specifically addressed. The main focus is innate immunity, the only type of immunity in plants, invertebrates, and lower vertebrates, and that coexists with adaptive immunity in higher vertebrates. Because of their presence in the majority of eukaryotic living organisms, innate immune responses can be viewed in a comparative context. In the majority of cases, the interaction of NM with living organisms results in innate immune reactions that eliminate the possible danger with mechanisms that do not lead to damage. While in some cases such interaction may lead to pathological consequences, in some other cases beneficial effects can be identified.