Sleep is essential for both cognition and maintenance of healthy brain function. Slow waves in neural activity contribute to memory consolidation, whereas cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) clears metabolic waste products from the brain. Whether these two processes are related is not known. We used accelerated neuroimaging to measure physiological and neural dynamics in the human brain. We discovered a coherent pattern of oscillating electrophysiological, hemodynamic, and CSF dynamics that appears during non–rapid eye movement sleep. Neural slow waves are followed by hemodynamic oscillations, which in turn are coupled to CSF flow. These results demonstrate that the sleeping brain exhibits waves of CSF flow on a macroscopic scale, and these CSF dynamics are interlinked with neural and hemodynamic rhythms.

Life or death in hostile environments depends crucially on one's ability to detect and gate novel sounds to awareness, such as that of a twig cracking under the paw of a stalking predator in a noisy jungle. Two distinct auditory cortex processes have been thought to underlie this phenomenon: (i) attenuation of the so-called N1 response with repeated stimulation and (ii) elicitation of a mismatch negativity response (MMN) by changes in repetitive aspects of auditory stimulation. This division has been based on previous studies suggesting that, unlike for the N1, repetitive ''standard'' stimuli preceding a physically different ''novel'' stimulus constitute a prerequisite to MMN elicitation, and that the source loci of MMN and N1 are different. Contradicting these findings, our combined electromagnetic, hemodynamic, and psychophysical data indicate that the MMN is generated as a result of differential adaptation of anterior and posterior auditory cortex N1 sources by preceding auditory stimulation. Early (Ϸ85 ms) neural activity within posterior auditory cortex is adapted as sound novelty decreases. This alters the center of gravity of electromagnetic N1 source activity, creating an illusory difference between N1 and MMN source loci when estimated by using equivalent current dipole fits. Further, our electroencephalography data show a robust MMN after a single standard event when the interval between two consecutive novel sounds is kept invariant. Our converging findings suggest that transient adaptation of feature-specific neurons within human posterior auditory cortex filters superfluous sounds from entering one's awareness.

Human neuroimaging studies suggest that localization and identification of relevant auditory objects are accomplished via parallel parietal-to-lateral-prefrontal ''where'' and anterior-temporal-toinferior-frontal ''what'' pathways, respectively. Using combined hemodynamic (functional MRI) and electromagnetic (magnetoencephalography) measurements, we investigated whether such dual pathways exist already in the human nonprimary auditory cortex, as suggested by animal models, and whether selective attention facilitates sound localization and identification by modulating these pathways in a feature-specific fashion. We found a double dissociation in response adaptation to sound pairs with phonetic vs. spatial sound changes, demonstrating that the human nonprimary auditory cortex indeed processes speech-sound identity