Uncertainty is a central concept in the decision-making process, especially when dealing with biological systems subject to large natural variations. In the design of activated sludge systems, a conventional approach in dealing with uncertainty is implicitly translating it into above-normal safety factors, which in some cases may even increase the capital investments by an order of magnitude. To obviate this problem, an alternative design approach explicitly incorporating uncertainty is herein proposed. A probabilistic Monte Carlo engine is coupled to deterministic wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) models. The paper provides a description of the approach and a demonstration of the general adequacy of the method. The procedure is examined in an upgrade of a conventional WWTP towards stricter effluent standards on nutrients. The results suggest that the procedure can support the decision-making process under uncertainty conditions and that it can enhance the likelihood of meeting effluent standards without entailing above-normal capital investments. The analysis led to reducing the capital investment by 43%, producing savings of more than 1.2 million euro.

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An assessment method for Erysiphe graminis f. sp. tritici is proposed to help farmers predict potential losses superior to the cost of chemical control. On the basis of numerous and varied trials since 1950, the economic threshold of winter wheat powdery mildew appears to be around 25 pustules present on the two faces of the blade of the three upper leaves of 20 ear‐bearing tillers at the flowering stage. In order to avoid overstepping this economic threshold, nitrogenous fertilizer must be provided in a fractional manner on the basis of soil analysis, especially in the root layer. This is particularly important just after the winter. Varieties overstepping the threshold under these conditions should be avoided, or else treated with fungicide.

After Kosovo: Towards a New Transatlantic Contract, by Guillaume Parmentier The criticisms levelled at NATO during the Kosovo conflict revealed the contradictions in the Organization. The discrepancy between a politico-military apparatus dating from the Cold War and contemporary reality calls for the adoption of measures necessary to adapt the Alliance, and for a reflection on its true nature. Multilateralisme which presides over the political decisions in NATO, is still matched by unilateral domination of the military structure, the illustration of which was seen in terms of planning during the Kosovo operations. The necessary reform of NATO implies setting up a multilateral procedure for military decision-making, and a better symbiosis between military activities and political requirements, particularly by means of an adaptation of the command System that will aflow it to discharge properly the new tasks assigned to NATO. In this respect the Saint-Malo process could provide an opportunity for an initiative within NATO itself, so as to allow a truly balanced Alliance to émerge. Progress on European issues is partly contingent on a reform of the Atlantic Alliance.