The incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in patients with thalassemia is on the rise. The 2 well recognized HCC risk factors in thalassemia are iron overload and chronic viral infection with hepatitis C. The carcinogenicity of iron is related to its induction of oxidative damage, which results in genotoxicity, and to immunologic dysregulation, which attenuates cancer immune surveillance. Chronic hepatitis B and C infections lead to necroinflammation, which can prompt progression to HCC, but an independent role of hepatitis B virus in hepatic carcinogenesis among patients with thalassemia has not been demonstrated. Screening patients who have thalassemia using magnetic resonance imaging-based liver iron concentration measurement and liver ultrasound is recommended for early detection of iron overload and HCC, respectively. Prevention primarily resides in hepatitis B vaccination, donor blood screening, hepatitis treatment, and iron chelation. Although solid data is lacking on the outcomes of HCC treatment in patients with thalassemia, a personalized approach tailored to the individual patient's comorbidities remains necessary for treatment success. Treatment modalities for HCC include surgical resection, chemoembolization, and liver transplantation, among others. Multicenter studies are needed to better explore therapeutic targets that can improve the prognosis of these patients. Cancer 2017;123:751-58. © 2016 American Cancer Society.

Anemia in the elderly is a common finding that is associated with a poorer quality of life, worse outcomes, and increased mortality. While this entity is frequently overlooked, there is often an underlying cause that is correctable. Areas covered: In this review, we shed light on the prevalence of anemia in the elderly population, review the most common causes, particularly iron deficiency anemia and anemia of chronic disease, and describe the available treatment modalities. When a clear etiology for the anemia is ruled-out, the term unexplained anemia may be utilized; while still an under-explored field, one of the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms appears to be associated with an age-related inflammatory process. Expert commentary: Treating anemia secondary to nutritional deficiencies can be straightforward, but the management of the other types of anemia is not always the case. Treating anemia of chronic disease and anemia of chronic kidney disease may be limited by elevated levels of hepcidin and new promising treatments are still in pre-clinical and clinical trial phases. Caution should be employed when using erythropoiesis stimulating agents due to safety concerns, and when prescribing blood transfusion therapy, both of which lack the specific guidelines for use in the elderly.

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