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This chapter introduces several ideological groups and sects within Islam such as the Khawarij, Shi’ites, Qadaris, Mu’tazilites, Zaydis and Druz and discusses the reasons for their emergence and their relationship with core Islamic values and teachings.

Amin explores the development of Sufism in this chapter. He ties it to popular religious practices and the traces of ancient pagan religions in various geographical locations of the Muslim Empire. He explores how theologians and jurists reacted to the development of Sufi concepts and rituals. He also questions several of these rituals, tying them to the historical, political and sectarian contexts at the time of their emergence.