This article examines the efforts of post-Soviet Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania to promote social cohesion by addressing the ethnic and linguistic cleavages that are part of the legacy of Soviet rule. In examining the particular situation of each Baltic state and the response to international pressure for integration and social inclusion policy, Muiznieks, Rozenvalds and Birka note the roles of threat-perception, the historic context, the linguistic and citizenship policy, as well as socio-economic inequality, in facilitating Russian-speakers' sense of belonging to their respective Baltic state. While ostensibly aimed at fostering a sense of belonging to the national state, Baltic integration and social inclusion policy has often had a contradictory effect, especially in Estonia and Latvia, where the emphasis on the majority language and culture as a prerequisite for access to citizenship and formal membership has enhanced the threat-perceptions of minorities, and led to their alienation or identification with the external homeland of Russia. In Lithuania, early inclusion of minorities into the polity has had a beneficial long-term impact in terms of their identification with their country of residence, demonstrated by the fact that Russian-speakers express a greater sense of belonging to Lithuania. A review of the available survey data on the Baltic states suggests that the same cannot be said for Estonia and Latvia, where minorities express a weak sense of belonging to the state. This suggests a challenging road ahead for Estonia and Latvia in achieving social cohesion, understood by minorities as a sense of membership in the community and feelings of mutual recognition. Furthermore, all three Baltic states, Latvia in particular, have yet to address growing socio-economic inequality, which threatens to cause long-term difficulties for social cohesion.

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The aim of the article is to offer a comparative overview of the latest developments in the Baltic and Nordic state diaspora engagement policies and outreach practices, and to further the understanding of the term diaspora diplomacy. In this article, diaspora diplomacy is understood as the use of Foreign Service, or other branches of government, to promote the systematic relationship, for mutual benefit, between the country of origin government, diaspora groupings in countries of residence, and the various interest associations in both the country of origin and country of residence. In addition to reviewing the diaspora outreach initiatives of the eight countries, the article also utilizes interviews with representatives of the Ministries of Foreign Affairs of the Baltic and Nordic region. The interviews with government representatives offer insight into how diaspora are regarded, if diasporas are thought of as a resource for the home country, and what are the possible future trajectories for diaspora relations.

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