These data highlight the need for additional high-quality RCTs to examine the effects of TENS in CLBP. Trials should consider intensity of stimulation, timing of outcome assessment and assessment of pain, disability and function.

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During neuraxial anesthesia, AW reduces IPH more effectively than PW. Even with AW, IPH persists in some patients. Continued innovation in AW technology and additional comparative effectiveness research studying different AW methods are needed.