There is an absence of a uniform foreign-born health advantage across different life-course stages and health outcomes in Canada. Nonetheless, it remains the case that the HIE characterizes the majority of contemporary migrants since Canada's foreign-born population consists mostly of core working age adults.

A growing body of scholarship has assessed the treatment of juvenile offenders in adult criminal courts in the United States. These studies have worked to identify potential biases in the criminal sanctioning of juvenile offenders by examining whether these outcomes are simply due to legal factors such as the severity of the offense or prior criminal involvement, or extra‐legal factors such as race/ethnicity, age, or gender. Other studies have examined broader contextual factors surrounding the courts themselves to assess the influence that these factors may have on the sanctioning of young offenders. Although inconsistencies in the findings remain and data and methodological deficiencies plague many of the studies in this area, there is sufficient evidence to suggest that the US criminal justice system considers legally irrelevant factors when determining the severity of criminal sanctions for minors.

A tremendous amount of scholarly literature has assessed the possibility that criminal sanctions administered in the United States are not simply a function of legal factors such as the severity of the offense or prior criminal involvement. Much of this scholarship has attempted to ascertain the extent to which extralegal factors such as ethnicity, class background, or gender influence the sentencing of criminal offenders. Beyond these individual characteristics, scholars have also tried to determine if and how broader contextual factors surrounding the courts themselves may influence the sanctioning of criminal offenders. While substantial inconsistencies in the findings remain and methodological deficiencies plague some of the studies in this area, there is sufficient evidence to suggest that the US criminal justice system considers legally irrelevant factors when determining the severity of criminal sanctions.