Earlier work has provided experimental evidence for the existence of the primary and secondary process mental organization posited by Freud and has demonstrated that primary process effects are the more active unconsciously (Brakel et al. 2000). Primary and secondary processes were assessed by a categorization test in which qualitatively different principles could be used. In new experiments using the same stimuli, another significant implication of Freud's model was tested: that primary process mental organization has developmental priority. In these experiments, which studied 559 participants ranging in age from 3 to 80, it was found (1) that primary process mentation predominates in preschoolers; (2) that it is not until around age 7 that primary process organization is supplanted by secondary process organization; and (3) that after age 7 the predominance of secondary process organization remains remarkably stable throughout the life span.

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Prospective memory refers to the ability to rem em ber to carry out activities in the future. Examples of prospective memory include remembering to take one's m edication, attend an appointment or to pay one's bills. Few studies have addressed the remediation of prospective memory in the elderly despite the fact that adaptive prospective m em ory ability has a signi® cant impact on daily functioning. Sixty-eight able elderly participated in a pilot study of a seven-session workshop designed to enhance memory functioning. Broad spectrum interventions included psychoeducation regarding the impact of mood on memory, relaxation training, behavior modi® cation and cognitive restructuring of automatic thoughts. Participants also learned m em ory strategies which focused on information organizing and internal rehearsal. Use of these memory strategies as an alternative and complem ent to reliance on external m em ory strategies was repeatedly emphasized. A repeated m easures analysis of variance revealed that prospective m em ory perfor m ance im proved from pre-to post-testing (F(1,65)=10.05, p<0.01). No differences were observed between a group em ploying ecologically valid stimuli and another using laboratory-generated stimuli. Age-associated declines in prospective memory are potentially reversible; however, the full impact of the current intervention would need to be more thoroughly investigated in future studies with an adequate wait-list control group and attention to practice effects.

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