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Technological advances have led to a rapid increase in the implementation of virtual reality (VR) across multiple sectors of society. Further, we are seeing more researchers explore how the technology can be used to promote learning and training in a variety of domains. But there is a problematic gap between development of VR for training and education and learning theory to ensure its efficacy. We address this need by providing a theoretical lens through which to evaluate existing research in VR. We consider technology developments that have made VR more sophisticated and draw from research in the learning and cognitive sciences to evaluate their utility as learning affordances. With this, we examine existing research as a way to illustrate the practical value of theoretical evaluation. We conclude with a discussion how this theoretical framing can point the way for both better designed studies to accelerate learning and training as well as for more innovative adaptations for accelerating learning in immersive virtual reality.

As the complexity of aircraft cockpit operations increases, training effectiveness must be improved, and learning accelerated. Virtual reality (VR) training is increasingly offered as a method for improving training efficacy given its ability to provide a rich sensory experience during learning. This paper describes a study examining how training efficacy can be improved by improving learning diagnostics. We study how varying forms of knowledge assessment are related to different types of task knowledge and task performance in a VR flight simulator. The data suggest that participants who demonstrated higher training comprehension, measured via diagnostic test questions, on conceptual (and to a lesser effect) declarative knowledge, also demonstrated superior knowledge transfer in the VR flight simulator. Findings are discussed in the context of improving cognitively diagnostic assessments that are better able to predict task performance and inform individually tailored training remediation.

Mission success in military operations is determined by team actions and is dependent on effective team training. Training has the potential to strengthen or weaken a team, and feedback during training is cited as a cornerstone for effective training. The Army currently employs an after-action review (AAR) process to provide post-action feedback to teams. Traditional AAR dynamics, with teammates and a facilitator in the same room, are being disrupted by the growing frequency of geographically-distributed teams; thus, distributed AARs are becoming necessary. However, past research has not determined the optimal techniques for conducting distributed AARs. This research compared no AAR, teleconference AAR, and teleconference AAR with visual feedback. Results show that teleconference with visual feedback condition was the best, followed by no AAR, followed by teleconference AAR. This research should be considered when designing distributed military training and feedback, as well as other domains that use distributed training and feedback.

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