Whilst literature describing edible Pickering emulsions is becoming increasingly available, current understanding of these systems still suffers from a lack of consistency in terms of the (processing and formulation) conditions within which these structures have been studied. The current study aims to provide a comparative analysis of the behaviour of different edible Pickering candidates and their ability to stabilise emulsion droplets, under well-controlled and uniform experimental conditions, in order to clearly identify the particle properties necessary for successful Pickering functionality. More specifically, an extensive investigation into the suitability of various food-grade material to act as Pickering particles and provide stable oil-in-water (O/W) and water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions was carried out. Polysaccharide and flavonoid particles were characterised in terms of their size, ζ-potential, interfacial activity and wettability, under equivalent conditions. Particles were subsequently used to stabilise 20% w/w O/W and W/O emulsions, in the absence of added surfactant or other known emulsifying agents, through different processing routes. All formed Pickering emulsions were shown to resist significant droplet size variation and remain stable at particle concentrations between 2 and 3% w/w. The main particle prerequisites for successful Pickering stabilisation were: particle size (200nm - 1μm); an affinity for the emulsion continuous phase and a sufficient particle charge to extend stability. Depending upon the employed emulsification process, the resulting emulsion formation and stability behaviour can be reasonably predicted a priori from the evaluation of specific particle characteristics.

Although water-in-oil-in-water (W 1 /O/W 2) double emulsions have been associated with a spectrum of potential applications in foods, their complex microstructure is significantly unstable. Pickering stabilisation, reputed for superior and longer-term interfacial stabilisation when compared to surfactant-stabilised systems, could provide the opportunity to enhance double emulsion stability. The current work presents a systematic study on the impact of progressively adopting such a Pickering intervention onto one or both interfaces of W 1 /O/W 2 emulsions relevant to foods. A range of surfactants/emulsifiers and particles have been used at the W 1 /O or O/W 2 interface of the W 1 /O/W 2 microstructure and, where appropriate, cross-compared with the equivalent interfaces of simple emulsions (W/O and O/W, respectively). As the aqueous compartments of all investigated systems were not osmotically balanced (at the point of 2 formulating/forming these), any advantages in terms of double emulsion stability enhancement can be directly attributed to the employed particle stabilisation. It is demonstrated that although partial Pickering intervention can encourage stability (particularly if that is introduced at the inner W 1 /O interface), only complete Pickering stabilisation of the double microstructure can ensure that oil globule size is maintained and internal water phase is retained unaltered over a storage period of one month.

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