Electrospinning is an exceptional technology to fabricate sub-micrometric fiber scaffolds for regenerative medicine applications and to mimic the morphology and the chemistry of the natural extracellular matrix (ECM). Although most synthetic and natural polymers can be electrospun, gelatin frequently represents a material of choice due to the presence of cell-interactive motifs, its wide availability, low cost, easy processability, and biodegradability. However, cross-linking is required to stabilize the structure of the electrospun matrices and avoid gelatin dissolution at body temperature. Different physical and chemical cross-linking protocols have been described to improve electrospun gelatin stability and to preserve the morphological fibrous arrangement of the electrospun gelatin scaffolds. Here, we review the main current strategies. For each method, the cross-linking mechanism and its efficiency, the influence of electrospinning parameters, and the resulting fiber morphology are considered. The main drawbacks as well as the open challenges are also discussed.

Introduction: The effect of scaffold pore size and interconnectivity is undoubtedly a crucial factor for most tissue engineering applications. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of pore size and porosity on cartilage construct development in different scaffolds seeded with articular chondrocytes. Methods: We fabricated poly-L-lactide-co-trimethylene carbonate scaffolds with different pore sizes, using a solvent-casting/particulate-leaching technique. We seeded primary bovine articular chondrocytes on these scaffolds, cultured the constructs for 2 weeks and examined cell proliferation, viability and cell-specific production of cartilaginous extracellular matrix proteins, including GAG and collagen. Results: Cell density significantly increased up to 50% with scaffold pore size and porosity, likely facilitated by cell spreading on the internal surface of bigger pores, and by increased mass transport of gases and nutrients to cells, and catabolite removal from cells, allowed by lower diffusion barriers in scaffolds with a higher porosity. However, both the cell metabolic activity and the synthesis of cartilaginous matrix proteins significantly decreased by up to 40% with pore size. We propose that the association of smaller pore diameters, causing 3-dimensional cell aggregation, to a lower oxygenation caused by a lower porosity, could have been the condition that increased the cell-specific synthesis of cartilaginous matrix proteins in the scaffold with the smallest pores and the lowest porosity among those tested. Conclusions: In the initial steps of in vitro cartilage engineering, the combination of small scaffold pores and low porosity is an effective strategy with regard to the promotion of chondrogenesis

Scaffold morphology plays a key role in the development of tissue engineering constructs. The control of pore size, shape and interconnection is needed to achieve adequate nutrient transport and cell ingrowth. Several techniques are available for scaffold manufacturing, but none allows easy control of morphology and is, at the same time, applicable to a wide variety of materials. To investigate the possibility of processing a wide range polymers by solvent casting/particulate leaching with accurate control of scaffold morphology, three different porogens (gelatin microspheres, paraffin microspheres and sodium chloride crystals) were used to fabricate scaffolds from commonly employed biodegradable polymers. The outcome of processing was evaluated in terms of scaffold morphology and structure/properties relationships. Highly porous scaffolds were obtained with all porogens and well defined spherical pores resulted from microspheres leaching. Furthermore, scaffolds with spherical pores showed better mechanical performance and lower flow resistance. Cytocompatibility tests performed showed no evidence of processing residuals released from the scaffolds. Solvent casting/microspheres leaching, particularly gelatin microspheres leaching, can be used to process a large number of polymers and enables to tailor scaffold pore size, shape and interconnection, thus providing a powerful tool for material selection and optimization of scaffold morphology.

Injectable composite colloidal gels are developed for regeneration of osteoporotic bone defects through a bottom-up assembly from bisphosphonatefunctionalized gelatin and bioactive glass particles. Upon bisphosphonate functionalization, gelatin nanoparticles show superior adhesion toward bioactive glass particles, resulting in elastic composite gels. By tuning their composition, these composite colloidal gels combine mechanical robustness with self-healing ability. The composite colloidal gels support cell proliferation and differentiation in vitro without requiring any osteogenic supplement. In vivo evaluation of the composite colloidal gels reveals their capacity to support the regeneration of osteoporotic bone defects. Furthermore, the bisphosphonate modification of gelatin induces a therapeutic effect on the peri-implantation region by enhancing the bone density of the osteoporotic bone tissue. Consequently, these composite colloidal gels offer new therapeutic opportunities for treatment of osteoporotic bone defects.