One of the challenges of antipsychotic medication is the occurrence of Extrapyramidal Symptoms. These cannot be easily eliminated considering the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and the established mechanism of action of classical antipsychotics. The antipsychotics help improve symptoms of schizophrenia by binding to dopamine receptors in the central nervous system and blocking dopamine. This prevents the basal ganglia from getting enough dopamine. Many drugs used in the treatment of mental disorders such as the neuroleptics and antidepressants adversely affect extrapyramidal system function, resulting in symptoms such as tremors and muscle rigidity collectively known as extrapyramidal symptoms. Treatment generally involves lowering the dose or trying a different antipsychotic but drugs may also be used specifically to treat symptoms. This review examines the attempt to eliminate extrapyramidal symptoms by generations of antipsychotic medications and their comparative efficacy in the treatment of schizophrenia. A wide internet search was carried out using keywords and phrases that include; Antipsychotics, Typical Antipsychotics, Atypical Antipsychotics, Dopaminergic, Extrapyramidal symptoms, comparative efficacy of Antipsychotics and Adverse Effect of Antipsychotics. This will further reinforce knowledge and prescription patterns for antipsychotic medications.

Introduction: The human passion for procreation and perpetration of lineage has remained since existence. Surrogacy implies the use of a substitute mother to gestate a pregnancy for another woman and thereafter relinquishes the child/children and any parental entitlement to the child/children to the commissioning parents. It is a veritable option for couples who have not been successful in their efforts to bear children. Objective: to assess the awareness, practice, and limitations to practice of surrogacy in Igbo Ukwu community of Anambra State, South- East Nigeria. Methodology: A descriptive cross-sectional study which involved 200 male and female community members of Igbo Ukwu in Anambra. Sample size of 200 was calculated for the study using the Kish formula for cross sectional studies. Simple random sampling was used in selecting participants who converged in the community square. A structured self-administered questionnaire was employed in gathering information on socio-demographic characteristics, knowledge, practice, and limitations to practice of surrogacy. Data was analyzed using Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23.0. Descriptive statistics was used to summarize the results which were presented with the aid of a pie chart, bar chart and frequency tables. The level of significance was set at 95% probability level (p < 0.05) Result: Most of the research participants were within the age group 28 – 37 years (40.0%), with mean age of 25.3+1yrs. The study population comprised mainly of people who had formal education (93.0%). There was high level of awareness of surrogacy arrangement in the studied population (84%). However, the practice of surrogacy was generally poor; only four (4) respondents out of 120 females that participated in the study (3.3%) had acted as surrogate mother. Financial benefit was mainly the reason for accepting surrogacy as noted in 47.8% of research participants, while fear of victimization due to absence of a legal framework (54.3%) and to a lesser extent, culture (27.1%) and religious inclination (28.6%) were the main reasons limiting the practice of surrogacy among the participants Conclusion: There is an obvious disconnect between the level of awareness and practice of surrogacy mainly due to fear of victimization from lack of a legal framework. This calls for a need to institutionalize a legal framework to control assisted reproductive technology practice in Nigeria which will restore the hope and aspirations of the infertile couple in need of surrogacy and other assisted reproductive techniques. Keywords: surrogacy, awareness, practice, limitations, legal framework.

True knot of the umbilical cord is a rare occurrence with 4-10 fold increased risk of stillbirth. Infants with umbilical cord true knots often suffer extents of hypoxia in their prenatal course, which may cause fetal distress or even intrauterine death. We report a rare case of two true knots of the umbilical cord that was observed in a very stable male fetus following caesarean delivery for breech presentation. Even though prenatal diagnosis of a true umbilical cord knot could be difficult, we recommend high index of suspicion, routine Doppler study of the umbilical cord especially in patients at risk of true knot formation and adequate intrapartum monitoring to ensue good pregnancy outcome.

Background: Vegetable oils are commonly used food additives. Aim: To characterize and observe the toxic effect of sub chronic consumption of heated and unheated Palm Kernel oil (PKO) and Soya Oil (S0) after heating at 180 ℃ and at room temperature in albino Wistar rats. Methodology: The physicochemical properties were analyzed, sixty rats were divided into five groups of twelve rats and their baseline weight recorded. Group 1 (controls), received water and feed only, while 10mls of each oil was added (add libitum) to 100 grams of feed in each test group for six weeks and twelve weeks. Group 2 received feed, water and unheated PKO and Group 3 received feed, water and heated PKO. Group 4 were given feed, water and unheated SO while group 5 had feed, water and heated SO. The lipid profile and blood glucose were measured at six weeks exposure while the renal function and liver function were determined at twelve weeks exposure. Result: Heating the oils at 180 ℃ for 15 minutes caused a decrease in relative density, peroxide values, and iodine values in both the PKO and SBO and increased acid values and free fatty acids in both with no effect in the refractive index. Biochemical result showed that both heated and the unheated oil samples significantly increased the LDL levels, HPKO and UHSO caused increase in total cholesterol levels, UHPKO significantly decreased the TAG, HPKO significantly increased the ALT, HPKO significantly decreased the urea level and HSO increased the BG significantly. Conclusion: Heating alters the physicochemical properties of the oils thereby decreasing their qualities, while the oils also demonstrated evidence of hyperlipidemia.

This was an experimental study that evaluated the effect of aqueous, methanol and chloroform root extracts of Imperata cylindrica on serum levels of testosterone in male Wistar rats. Shade dried Imperata cylindrica roots were pounded and crude extracts prepared using distilled water, methanol and chloroform. Diabetes mellitus was induced with alloxan monohydrate and the diabetic rats were divided into six groups (n=8) and kept in separate cages. Group A rats were Non-Diabetic Rats Treated With Distilled Water. In Group B were placed Alloxan-Induced Diabetic Rats Treated with Distilled Water. Groups C, D and E contained Alloxan-Induced Diabetic Rats Treated with 200 mg/Kg body weight water, chloroform and methanol Imperata cylindrica root extracts in the given order. Group F was the Positive Control with Alloxan-Induced Diabetic Rats Treated with Glibenclamide [0.5 mg/kg body weight]. This treatment was carried out for 28 days sequentially. An analysis of the serum obtained from the rats after 28 days indicate that the extracts increased testosterone levels to varying degrees with the methanol extract producing the highest activity of 27.42 percent. This increase is from 3.23±0.04 ng/ml at baseline to 4.45±0.11 ng/ml after 28 days (p 0.0001). The increase due to aqueous extract was equally very statistically significant (p 0.0001) as the baseline concentration of testosterone, 3.35±0.08 ng/ml was increased by 23.70% to 4.39±0.32 ng/ml. The chloroform extract proved to be the least active of the extracts as it only increased the testosterone level by 11.76% from 3.15±0.19 ng/ml at baseline to 3.57±0.09 ng/ml after 28 days (p=0.0213). This was about two and half times lower than the methanol extract that elicited highest activity among the extracts and about four times less than the effect produced by the Group F rats treated with 0.5 mg/kg body weight of glibenclamide. The testosterone levels of Group F rats after 28 days increased to the levels seen in the normal control group that did not receive alloxan, from 3.17±0.12 to 5.51±0.25 ng/ml, a 42.47% change. This result indicates that methanol is the best extractant of the three solvents analyzed.