Mechanical loading is essential for articular cartilage homeostasis and plays a central role in the cartilage pathology, yet the mechanotransduction processes that underlie these effects remain unclear. Previously we showed that lethal amounts of reactive oxygen species (ROS) were liberated from the mitochondria in response to mechanical insult, and that chondrocyte deformation may be a source of ROS. To this end, we hypothesized that mechanically-induced mitochondrial ROS is related to the magnitude of cartilage deformation. To test this, we measured axial tissue strains in cartilage explants subjected to semi-confined compressive stresses of 0, 0.05, 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, or 1.0 MPa. The presence of ROS was then determined by confocal imaging with dihydroethidium (DHE), an oxidant sensitive fluorescent probe. Our results indicated that ROS levels increased linearly relative to the magnitude of axial strains (r2 = 0.83, p < 0.05), and significant cell death was observed at strains > 40%. By contrast, hydrostatic stress, which causes minimal tissue strain, had no significant effect. Cell permeable superoxide dismutase mimetic Mn(III)tetrakis (1-methyl-4-pyridyl) porphyrin pentachloride (MnTMPyP) significantly decreased ROS levels at 0.5 and 0.25 MPa. Electron transport chain inhibitor, rotenone, and cytoskeletal inhibitor, cytochalasin B, significantly decreased ROS levels at 0.25 MPa. Our findings strongly suggest that ROS and mitochondrial oxidants contribute to cartilage mechanobiology.

Objective Determine whether repeatedly overloading healthy cartilage disrupts mitochondrial function in a manner similar to that associated with osteoarthritis pathogenesis. Methods We exposed normal articular cartilage on bovine osteochondral explants to 1 day or 7 consecutive days of cyclic axial compression (0.25 or 1.0 MPa, 0.5 Hz, 3 hours) and evaluated effects on chondrocyte viability, ATP concentration, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, indicators of oxidative stress, respiration, and mitochondrial membrane potential. Results Neither 0.25 nor 1.0 MPa cyclic compression caused extensive chondrocyte death, macroscopic tissue damage, or overt changes in stress-strain behavior. After one day of loading, differences in respiratory activities between the 0.25 and 1.0 MPa groups were minimal; after 7 loading days, however, respiratory activity and ATP levels were suppressed in the 1.0 MPa group relative to the 0.25 MPa group, an effect prevented with pretreatment with 10 mM N-acetylcysteine. These changes were accompanied by increased proton leakage and decreases in mitochondrial membrane potential as well as by increased ROS formation indicated by dihydroethidium staining and glutathione oxidation. Conclusion Repeated overloading leads to chondrocyte oxidant-dependent mitochondrial dysfunction. This mitochondrial dysfunction may contribute to destabilization of cartilage during various stages of OA in distinct ways by disrupting chondrocyte anabolic responses to mechanical stimuli.

We tested whether inhibiting mechanically-responsive articular chondrocyte mitochondria after severe traumatic injury and preventing oxidative damage represent a viable paradigm for posttraumatic osteoarthritis (PTOA) prevention. We used a porcine hock intra-articular fracture (IAF) model well suited to human-like surgical techniques and with excellent anatomic similarities to human ankles. After IAF, amobarbital or N-acetylcysteine (NAC) was injected to inhibit chondrocyte electron transport or downstream oxidative stress, respectively. Effects were confirmed via spectrophotometric enzyme assays or glutathione/glutathione disulfide assays and immunohistochemical measures of oxidative stress. Amobarbital or NAC delivered after IAF provided substantial protection against PTOA at 6 months, including maintenance of proteoglycan content, decreased histological disease scores, and normalized chondrocyte metabolic function. These data support the therapeutic potential of targeting chondrocyte metabolism after injury and suggest a strong role for mitochondria in mediating PTOA.

Metabolic adaptation of articular cartilage under joint loading is evident and matrix synthesis seems to be critically tied to ATP. Chondrocytes utilize the glycolytic pathway for energy requirements but seem to require mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) to sustain ATP synthesis. The role of ROS in regulating ATP reserves under a mechanically active environment is not clear. It is believed that physiological strains cause deformation of the mitochondria, potentially releasing ROS for energy production. We hypothesized that mechanical loading stimulates ATP synthesis via mitochondrial release of ROS. Bovine osteochondral explants were dynamically loaded at 0.5Hz with amplitude of 0.25MPa for 1 Hour. Cartilage response to mechanical loading was assessed by imaging with dihydroethidium (ROS indicator) and a Luciferase based ATP assay. Electron transport inhibitor rotenone and mitochondrial ROS scavenger MitoQ significantly suppressed mechanically induced ROS production and ATP synthesis. Our findings indicate that mitochondrial ROS are produced as a result of physiological mechanical strains. Taken together with our previous findings of ROS involvement in blunt impact injuries, mitochondrial ROS are important contributors to cartilage metabolic adaptation and their precise role in the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis warrants further investigation.

Objective Articular cartilage damage after joint trauma seldom heals and often leads to osteoarthritis. We previously identified a migratory chondrogenic progenitor cell (CPC) population that responds chemotactically to cell death and rapidly repopulates the injured cartilage matrix, which suggests a potential approach for articular cartilage repair. This study was undertaken to determine whether recombinant human stromal cell–derived factor 1α (rhSDF‐1α), a potent CPC chemoattractant, would improve the quality of cartilage regeneration, hypothesizing that increased recruitment of CPCs by rhSDF‐1α would promote the formation of cartilage matrix upon chondrogenic induction. Methods Full‐thickness bovine chondral defects were filled with hydrogel, composed of fibrin and hyaluronic acid and containing rhSDF‐1α. Cell migration was monitored, followed by chondrogenic induction. Regenerated tissue was evaluated by histology, immunohistochemistry, and scanning electron microscopy. Push‐out tests and unconfined compression tests were performed to assess the strength of tissue integration and the mechanical properties of the regenerated cartilage. Results Use of rhSDF‐1α dramatically improved CPC recruitment to the chondral defects at 12 days. After 6 weeks under chondrogenic conditions, cell morphology, proteoglycan density, and the ultrastructure of the repair tissue were all similar to that found in native cartilage. Compared with empty controls, neocartilage generated in rhSDF‐1α–containing defects showed significantly greater interfacial strength, and acquired mechanical properties comparable to those of native cartilage. Conclusion This study showed that stimulating local CPC recruitment prior to treatment with chondrogenic factors significantly improves the biochemical and mechanical properties of the cartilage tissue formed in chondral defects. This simple approach may be implemented in vivo as a one‐step procedure by staging the release of chemokine and chondrogenic factors from within the hydrogel, which can be achieved using smart drug‐delivery systems.