In adults without diagnosable psychopathology, childhood maltreatment is associated with diminished HPA axis response to a psychosocial stressor. Possible explanations for the finding are discussed.

BackgroundViolence and other traumatic events, as well as psychiatric disorders are frequent in developing countries, but there are few population studies to show the actual impact of traumatic events in the psychiatric morbidity in low and middle-income countries (LMIC).AimsTo study the relationship between traumatic events and prevalence of mental disorders in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.MethodsCross-sectional survey carried out in 2007–2008 with a probabilistic representative sample of 15- to 75-year-old residents in Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview.ResultsThe sample comprised 3744 interviews. Nearly 90% of participants faced lifetime traumatic events. Lifetime prevalence of any disorders was 44% in Sao Paulo and 42.1% in Rio de Janeiro. One-year estimates were 32.5% and 31.2%. One-year prevalence of traumatic events was higher in Rio de Janeiro than Sao Paulo (35.1 vs. 21.7; p<0.001). Participants from Rio de Janeiro were less likely to have alcohol dependence (OR = 0.55; p = 0.027), depression (OR = 0.6; p = 0.006) generalized anxiety (OR = 0.59; p = 0.021) and post-traumatic stress disorder (OR = 0.62; p = 0.027). Traumatic events correlated with all diagnoses – e.g. assaultive violence with alcohol dependence (OR = 5.7; p<0.001) and with depression (OR = 1.7; p = 0.001).ConclusionOur findings show that psychiatric disorders and traumatic events, especially violence, are extremely common in Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, supporting the idea that neuropsychiatric disorders and external causes have become a major public health priority, as they are amongst the leading causes of burden of disease in low and middle-income countries. The comparison between the two cities regarding patterns of violence and psychiatric morbidity suggests that environmental factors may buffer the negative impacts of traumatic events. Identifying such factors might guide the implementation of interventions to improve mental health and quality of life in LMIC urban centers.

BackgroundOver the past five decades, clinicians and researchers have debated the impact of the Holocaust on the children of its survivors. The transgenerational transmission of trauma has been explored in more than 500 articles, which have failed to reach reliable conclusions that could be generalized. The psychiatric literature shows mixed findings regarding this subject: many clinical studies reported psychopathological findings related to transgenerational transmission of trauma and some empirical research has found no evidence of this phenomenon in offspring of Holocaust survivors.MethodThis qualitative study aims to detect how the second generation perceives transgenerational transmission of their parents’ experiences in the Holocaust. In-depth individual interviews were conducted with fifteen offspring of Holocaust survivors and sought to analyze experiences, meanings and subjective processes of the participants. A Grounded Theory approach was employed, and constant comparative method was used for analysis of textual data.ResultsThe development of conceptual categories led to the emergence of distinct patterns of communication from parents to their descendants. The qualitative methodology also allowed systematization of the different ways in which offspring can deal with parental trauma, which determine the development of specific mechanisms of traumatic experience or resilience in the second generation.ConclusionsThe conceptual categories constructed by the Grounded Theory approach were used to present a possible model of the transgenerational transmission of trauma, showing that not only traumatic experiences, but also resilience patterns can be transmitted to and developed by the second generation. As in all qualitative studies, these conclusions cannot be generalized, but the findings can be tested in other contexts.

Over the past 50 years, relationships between stress and the neurobiological changes seen in psychiatric disorders have been well-documented. A major focus of investigations in this area has been the role of the hypothalamicpituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, both as a marker of stress response and as a mediator of additional downstream pathophysiologic changes. This review examines the emerging literature concerning the relationship between stress, HPA axis function, and depression, as well as the role of early life stress as an important risk factor for HPA axis dysregulation. The more recent studies reviewed suggest that the prominence of HPA axis hyperactivity in adults with depressive and anxiety disorders may constitute a link between the occurrence of adversity in childhood and the development of adult psychopathology Stress. Depression. Hypothalamus. Pituitary-adrenal system. Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH). HPA axis. Child abuse. Childhood trauma.Nos últimos cinqüenta anos, as relações entre estresse e mudanças neurológicas nas doenças psiquiátricas foram bastante documentadas. Um dos maiores focos de investigação nesta área tem sido o eixo hipotálamo-hipofisário-adrenal (HHA), tanto como marcador da resposta ao estresse, quanto como um mediador das mudanças fisiopatológicas em resposta ao estresse. Esta revisão examina a literatura emergente no que concerne às relações entre estresse, eixo HHA e depressão, assim como o papel do estresse precoce como fator de risco para a disfunção do eixo HHA. Os estudos mais recentes sugerem um papel de destaque para a hiperatividade deste eixo em adultos com depressão e transtornos de ansiedade. Esta hiperatividade pode se constituir na ligação entre ocorrência de adversidades na infância e o desenvolvimento da psicopatologia no adulto.Estresse. Depressão. Hipotálamo. Sistema pituitário-adrenal. Hormônio liberador de corticotropina (HLC). Eixo HHA. Abuso contra crianças. Trauma infantil. Abstract Keywords ResumoDescritores and the neurobiological changes seen in psychiatric disorders had been well-documented.A major focus of investigation in this area has been the role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, both as a marker of the stress response and as a mediator of additional downstream pathophysiologic changes. The HPA axis functions in close concert with the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine (LC-NE) system, which is involved in extensive reciprocal innervation of regions throughout the central nervous system (CNS). Stressors detected via the primary sensory organs generate signals which pass through mediating systems located in

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