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Bowlby describes premature parental behaviour in children when discussing the inversion of parent-child relationships. Normal parental behaviour in children is discussed. Pathological parental behaviour in children is viewed as basically elicited by the weak, infantile aspects of parents. A case history is presented. Premature parental behaviour is viewed as one of several binding mechanisms which may keep a child tied to his/her family of origin.

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I would like to say a few personal words before beginning this article. I was a pupil of Arieti's in New York in 1963-1964, and then, for several years, together with my wife, I translated most of his books into Italian, in close cooperation with the author. Arieti was eager for his writings to be known in his country of origin. I met Arieti through Pier Francesco Galli and the "Milanese Group for the Development of Psychotherapy," which Galli had founded and directed. At the beginning of the 1960s, this group introduced the psychotherapy of psychoses into Italy through the translation of books and the personal presence of Benedetti and Arieti--two leaders in this area who originated from Italy. I would like Dr. Galli's merits to be acknowledged in this meeting. He made an essential cultural contribution, which initially--with some exceptions--was met with hostility by Italian psychiatry and psychoanalysis. Also thanks to his initiative, the cultural climate has changed since then. The presence at this meeting not only of representatives of psychiatry and of the traditional psychoanalytic schools, but also of OPIFER, a group of independent analysts that follow the model of Arieti's American Academy, is a testimony to this change. By inviting these various groups, the organizers of the meeting have recognized this change in cultural climate.

This article starts from the DSM definition of psychic trauma. A central source in this field is the 1992 book by Judith Herman. One line of investigation is the sexual abuse of women and children. In an early phase, both Janet and Freud described dissociation as a reaction to trauma. In 1897, Freud disputed the reality of sexual trauma, a position countered later by Ferenczi. In a later phase, this subject was investigated by the American feminist movement. Studies of physical abuse are then described, followed by mental abuse and neglect. Another line of investigation is combat neurosis. The two lines converged in the definition of PTSD and its incorporation into the DSM in 1980. The views on trauma of John Bowlby and Alice Miller are also discussed. The integration of the relational model in psychoanalysis with the trauma literature is presented. The most recent advances are located in neurobiology. The discussion makes a preliminary investigation of the remote causes of war and sexual violence.