Acanthamoebae are potentially pathogenic organisms, with a highly unique, yet still insufficiently investigated metabolism. Many open questions can be addressed by gene expression studies, however, for Acanthamoeba reliable standards have not yet been established. in this study, suitable reference genes (RGs) for Rt-qpcR in Acanthamoeba were comprehensively evaluated, comparing different Acanthamoeba strains and employing four different algorithms (NormFinder, GeNorm, BestKeeper and Reffinder). expression stability was assessed under various conditions and the potentials of the most promising RGs for accurate normalization of target genes were evaluated. expression stability of RGs varied depending on conditions and employed algorithms, however, the genes for the 18S rRNA and the hypoxanthine phosphoribosyl transferase seem to be widely suitable RGs. normalization with a combination of two carefully chosen RGs resulted in reliable expression data for target genes, while normalization with unsuitable RGs led to significant misinterpretation of expression profiles. Thus, a careful evaluation of RGs prior to expression studies is essential.

Acanthamoeba castellanii is a facultative pathogen that has a two-stage life cycle comprising the vegetatively growing trophozoite stage and the dormant cyst stage. Cysts are formed when the cell encounters unfavorable conditions, such as environmental stress or food deprivation. Due to their rigid double-layered wall, Acanthamoeba cysts are highly resistant to antiamoebic drugs. This is problematic as cysts can survive initially successful chemotherapeutic treatment and cause relapse of the disease. We studied the Acanthamoeba encystment process by using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2DE) and found that most changes in the protein content occur early in the process. Truncated actin isoforms were found to abound in the encysting cell, and the levels of translation elongation factor 2 (EF2) were sharply decreased, indicating that the rate of protein synthesis must be low at this stage. In the advanced stage of encystment, however, EF2 levels and the trophozoite proteome were partly restored. The protease inhibitors PMSF (phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride) and E64d [(2S,3S)-trans-epoxysuccinyl-L-leucylamido-3-methylbutane ethyl ester] inhibited the onset of encystment, whereas the protein synthesis inhibitor cycloheximide was ineffective. Changes in the protein profile, similar to those of encysting cells, could be observed with trophozoite homogenates incubated at room temperature for several hours. Interestingly, these changes could be inhibited significantly by cysteine protease inhibitors but not by inhibitors against other proteases. Taken together, we conclude that the encystment process in A. castellanii is of a bipartite nature consisting of an initial phase of autolysis and protein degradation and an advanced stage of restoration accompanied by the expression of encystment-specific genes.

Acanthamoeba species are ubiquitous amoebae able to cause important infections in humans and other vertebrates. The full/near-full sequences (>2000 bp) of the small subunit ribosomal RNA gene (SSU rDNA or 18S rDNA) are used to cluster Acanthamoeba as genotypes, labeled T1 to T20. Genotype T15 remains an exception, being described only partially on a 1500-bp fragment. Strains are thus usually identified based on their 18S identity matches with reference strains, often using shorter (<500 bp) diagnostic fragments of the gene. Nevertheless, short fragments (<1000 bp) have been used to propose genotypes. This has been criticized, and doubts arise therefore on possible confusion leading to classify distinct partial sequences with a same label(s). We demonstrate herein that several partial sequences misassigned either to T16 or to T4, actually belong to at least two separate and distinct genotypes. We obtained the full 18S rDNA of a strain previously typed as T16 on the basis of a small fragment and demonstrated that it actually belongs to the recently described T19. We propose the name Acanthamoeba micheli sp. nov., for this strain. Furthermore, partial molecular phylogenies were performed to show that several other misassigned T16 partial sequences belong to a new genotype. This latter includes also misassigned T4 partial sequences, only recently available as full sequences and labeled as T20. We thus reassign these partial sequences to the genotype T20. Longer sequences, ideally at least 90 % of the total gene length, should be obtained from strains to ensure reliable diagnostic and phylogenetic results.

To evaluate the influence of prolonged axenic culture on the encystment capacity of Acanthamoeba spp., the encystment potential of four closely related Acanthamoeba strains, subcultured axenically for different periods of time, was evaluated comparing five encystment media. Media with more alkaline pH values were slightly more effective; however, the composition of the respective encystment medium had only limited influence on the encystment potential, while a strong correlation of losses in encystment potential and times strains had been cultured axenically was demonstrated. Furthermore, our results indicate that losses in encystment potential occur shortly after transfer into axenic culture to remain constant over many years.

We identified Onchocerca jakutensis as the causative agent of an unusual human filariasis in a patient with lupus erythematosus. To our knowledge, this is the first case of human infection with O. jakutensis and the first human case of zoonotic onchocercosis involving >1 worm.