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IntroductionIt is well known that Japanese norms of behavior have traditionally been highly gendered. Compared with men, women are expected to play subordinate social roles (Lebra 1984; Reischauer and Jansen 1995; Sugimoto 1997); their conduct, including ways of speaking, must be feminine; and they are thus expected to speak more politely, gently, and empathetically than men (Jugaku 1979; Endo 1995; Nakamura 2001; Okamoto 2002). At the same time, it has been increasingly recognized in recent years that actual behaviors of women (and men) do not necessarily conform to the norms and expectations, and that there is wide within-gender variation in speech (see §2 for further discussion). Yet, it is still not unusual to hear criticisms of women's speech when there are deviations from the prescriptive norms of femininity, as illustrated by the following excerpt from a recent letter to the editor of a major Japanese daily newspaper:In addition to the use of childish words and final rising intonations, young women have even started using men's language. Speaking in men's language is one thing, but there are girls who even use dirty words . . ., which makes me wonder how in the world their parents and teachers are raising them. But then, their mothers are also actively using men's language. On TV, I even saw a female professor using men's language proudly; I felt it was deplorable and questioned her educational level.... for men it seems as tasteless as eating sand or grafting bamboo on a tree .... In Japan there is an attractive and adorable women's language. If we teach men's language to female foreigners, we will inevitably end up teaching the wrong Japanese culture. (Letter from a 59-year-old man to the readers' column, Asahi Shinbun, November 2, 1992; translated from the original Japanese)The writer astutely pinpoints individuals within a particular (elite) social class in contemporary Japanese society (note that he is not discussing language used by, for example, female fish sellers). For the writer, these Japanese Language and Literature 37 (2003) 49-66 This content downloaded from 128.235.251.160 on Sat, 27 Dec 2014 17:30:55 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsJapanese Language and Literature women should use gendered language in order to remain within a particular socio-political hierarchy that is comfortable for the writer. However, the writer is not really talking about language but rather about preservation of traditional gender roles, which he thinks are presently in the process of being transformed. In invoking "Japa...
