Concentrations of chemical constituents in water are given in either milligram per liter (mg/L), microgram per liter (µg/L), or nanogram per liter (ng/L). viii Abbreviations 9Cl-PF3ONS 9-chlorohexadecafluoro-3-oxanonane-1-sulfonate 11Cl-PF3OUdS 11-chloroeicosafluoro-3-oxaundecane-1-sulfonate 4:2 FTS 4:2 fluorotelomersulfonate 6:2 FTS 6:2 fluorotelomersulfonate 8:2 FTS 8:2 fluorotelomersulfonate ADONA 4,8-dioxa-3H-perfluorononanoate CEC contaminants of emerging concern DO dissolved oxygen DoD U.S. Department of Defense EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency FASA perfluoroalkane sulfonamides HA health advisory HFPO-DA perfluoro-2-propoxypropanoate MCL maximum contaminant level N-EtFOSAA n-ethylperfluorooctanesulfonamidoacetate N-MeFOSAA n-methylperfluorooctanesulfonamidoacetate NFM National Field Manual NWQL National Water Quality Laboratory PFAA perfluoroalkyl acids PFAS per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances PFBA perfluorobutanoate PFBS perfluorobutanesulfonate PFCA perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acid PFDA perfluorodecanoate PFDS perfluorodecanesulfonate PFDoDA perfluorododecanoate PFHpA perfluoroheptanoate PFHpS perfluoroheptanesulfonate PFHxA perfluorohexanoate PFHxS perfluorohexanesulfonate PFNA perfluorononanoate PFNS perfluorononanesulfonate PFOA perfluorooctanoate PFOS perfluorooctanesulfonate ix PFOSA perfluorooctanesulfonamide PFPeA perfluoropentanoate PFPeS perfluoropentanesulfonate PFSA perfluoroalkyl sulfonic acid PFTeDA perfluorotetradecanoate PFTrDA perfluorotridecanoate

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vii 10. Boxplots showing distribution of iron, manganese, sulfate, dissolved oxygen, and pH in groundwater samples for 30 sites in the wet gas dominated part of the Marcellus Shale oil and gas play in northwestern West Virginia grouped by geologic formation or group .

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Acid mine drainage geochemistry and in situ alkaline injection were investigated at the DLM coal mine, Alton West Virginia. These included spatial and temporal investigations into hydrochemical controls that were initiated with reclamation efforts. Approaches included the delineation of hydrochemical facies and analysis of time series data to develop a methodology for estimating acid loads. Results of agglomerative hierarchical clustering were mapped to demonstrate spatial variations in response to reclamation efforts over time. Spatial patterns were determined and indicate that aquifer chemistry continued to evolve during the study period. Results confirmed that injection of alkalinity into the aquifer effected acid producing and neutralizing reactions in monitoring wells down gradient from the injection site. Low-frequency water chemistry was interpolated with natural cubic splines, resampled and multiplied by high-frequency flow to produce estimates of acid loads at high-frequency. Cross-correlation between high-frequency and low-frequency datasets showed an exponential decrease in correlation as the number of days between flow measurements increased. Result confirmed that natural cubic splines can be used for resampling hydrochemical time series data and the frequency at which flow is measured limits the accuracy of acid load estimates.