Water pipeline leakage detection is still an important issue, particularly for the development of smart cities. Thus, this paper reviews water pipeline leakage detection techniques, which can be classified into three different categories, namely, software-based, hardware-based, and conventional methods. We compare the advantages and disadvantages for all the methods in the groups and thoroughly discuss the hardware-based method, which is our focus. Specifications on water pipeline testbeds used in the previous works are also highlighted. Since many recent techniques are based on accelerometer or vibration sensors, a comparative study that includes the cost and accuracy in identifying the pipeline leaks is presented. The theoretical computation of the vibration induced from our water pipeline testbed is also demonstrated and compared with the actual vibration data collected from the experimental works using three different sensors, namely, MPU6050, MMA7361, and ADXL335. INDEX TERMS Water pipeline, pipeline leakage, vibration leak detection, accelerometer, pipeline test bed.
The localisation and positioning in Wireless Sensor Node (WSN) are prone to tracking loss because of battery depletion resulted from high power consumption. Considering this, Energy Harvesting (EH) is a significant factor to ensure the sustainability of WSN trackers. Therefore, the key objective of the paper is to review the existing EH approaches, specifically for WSN trackers. An overview of WSNs including the underlying wireless communication technologies is initially presented. We compared the communication range, data rates, power consumption and also the cost across wireless technologies used for WSN. This paper further discussed the localisation and positioning techniques using the Global Positioning System (GPS) and other types of sensors exploiting signal parameters like Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) and Angle of Arrival (AoA). Subsequently, we reviewed the energy harvesting approaches in terms of power density, efficiency and also highlighted their advantages and disadvantages. The EH components such as energy storage and energy-combining circuit for active monitoring are presented as well. Finally, this paper outlined the key challenges and future regards EH for WSN.
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