The aim of the present study was to synthesize lignin microparticles, to evaluate their physicochemical, spectral, morphological and structural characteristics, to examine their encapsulation and in vitro release potential and behaviour towards the flavonoid morin in simulated physiological medium and to assess the in vitro radical-scavenging potential of the morin-loaded lignin microcarrier systems. The physicochemical, structural and morphological characteristics of alkali lignin, lignin particles (LP) and morin-encapsulated lignin microparticles (LMP) were determined based on particle size distribution, SEM, UV/Vis spectrophotometric, FTIR and potentiometric titration analyses. The encapsulation efficiency of LMP was 98.1%. The FTIR analyses proved that morin was successfully encapsulated in the LP without unexpected chemical reactions between the flavonoid and the heteropolymer. The in vitro release performance of the microcarrier system was successfully mathematically described by Korsmeyer–Peppas and the sigmoidal models outlining the general role of diffusion during the initial stages of the in vitro release process in simulated gastric fluid (SGF), and the predominant contribution of biopolymer relaxation and erosion was determined in simulated intestinal medium (SIF). The higher radical-scavenging potential of LMP, as compared to that of LP, was proven via DPPH and ABTS assays. The synthesis of lignin microcarriers not only provides a facile approach for the utilization of the heteropolymer but also determines its potential for the design of drug-delivery matrices.

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As natural biopolymers, chitosan and lignin are characterized by their good biocompatibility, high biodegradability and satisfactory biosafety. The active polymers’ functional groups are responsible for the potential of these biomaterials for use as carrier matrices in the construction of polymer–drug conjugates with prospective applicability in the fields of medicine, food and agriculture—subjects that have attracted attention in recent years. Hence, the aim of this research was to place substantial emphasis on the antimicrobial potential of flavonoid–biopolymer complex systems by assessment of the probable synergetic, additive or antagonistic effects arising as a function of systemic complexity. The joint implementation of morin, chitosan and lignin in conjugated two- and three-component systems provoked species-dependent antimicrobial synergistic and/or potentiation effects against the activity of the tested bacterial strains Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853 and the clinical isolate Bacillus cereus. The double combinations of morin–chitosan and morin–lignin resulted in a 100% increase in their inhibitory activity against S. aureus as compared to the pure biocompounds. The inhibitory effects of the three-component system, in decreasing order, were: S. aureus (IZ = 15.7 mm) > P. aeruginosa (IZ = 15 mm) > B. cereus and E. coli (IZ = 14 mm). All tested morin-containing two- and three-component systems exhibited clear and significant potentiation effects, especially against S. aureus and B. cereus. The results obtained are a prerequisite for the potential use of the studied conjugated lignin–morin–chitosan combinations in the construction of novel drug-carrier formulations with improved bioactivities.

The present study was conducted to examine the changes in serum amyloid A (SAA) and iron concentrations during Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) infection in rabbits. The experimental procedures were carried out with 12 male New Zealand white healthy rabbits, divided into two equal groups - experimental group (n=6, rabbits infected with S.. aureus) and control group (n=6, uninfected animals). Blood samples were collected at time 0 (before the infection), 24, 48 and 72 hours and also 7 and 14 days after the infection. The results in infected group showed a significant increase in the levels of SAA at the 24th hour (p<0.001), 48th hour (p<0.05), and 72th hour (p<0.05) post-infection with mean levels 72.13 ± 23.29 µg/mL, 37.57 ± 31.55 µg/mL and 18.03 ± 15.15 µg/mL respectively. The iron concentration decreased at the 24th hour and 14th day post-infection, reaching values of 178.8 ± 87.2 μg/dL (p<0.01) and 123.33 ± 17.8 μg/dL (p<0.05) respectively. In conclusion changes in SAA and Fe levels may be used as valuable biochemical indicators for the diagnosis and prognosis of staphylococcosis in rabbits.