Western gray whales (WGW) Eschrichtius robustus are considered one of the world's most endangered baleen whale populations. Development of oil and gas fields in northeastern Sakhalin, Russia, is a concern, because they overlap with WGW feeding grounds. Some WGW migrate ~10 000 km from feeding grounds around Sakhalin Island (Russia), to breeding grounds in Baja California (BajaC; Mexico) and possibly ~6000 km to the South China Sea (China). We developed a WGW female bioenergetics model to examine potential consequences of energy lost from foraging cessation caused by anthropogenic disturbance, and compared it to eastern gray whales (EGW). Energy loss was then linked to potential reductions in reproduction and survival. Mean total energy requirements were 11 and 15% greater for WGW breeding in BajaC and China, respectively, compared to EGW, due to longer migration distance (25%) to BajaC and higher metabolic rates at foraging grounds. However, this difference is minimal for EGW that use the northern extent of their foraging range. On average, WGW breeding in BajaC and China need 9 and 17% more energy for survival than EGW. Our model predicts that WGW mortality would likely occur at 38 to 40% annual energetic loss. Long-term yearly energy loss of < 30% would reduce population growth due to lower reproductive rates. Ongoing yearly energy losses of > 30% would result in adult female mortality the first year, followed by lower reproductive rates of survivors. Our model suggests that energy losses of > 30% caused by disturbance should be considered a threshold for concern for this Critically Endangered population.

A seismic survey was conducted off the northeastern coast of Sakhalin Island, Russia in 2010. The survey area was adjacent to the only known near-shore feeding ground of the Critically Endangered population of western gray whales Eschrichtius robustus in the western Pacific south of the Aleutian Islands. This study examined the effectiveness of efforts to minimize the behavioural responses of the whales to vessel proximity and sound during the survey. Two shore-based behavioural observation teams monitored whale movements and respirations pre-, during and post-seismic survey. Theodolite tracking and focal-animal follow methods were used to collect behavioural data. Mixed linear models were used to examine deviations from 'normal' patterns in 10 movement and 7 respiration response variables in relation to vessel proximity, vessel/ whale relative orientations and 8 received sound metrics to examine if seismic survey sound and/or vessel activity influenced the whales' behaviour. Behavioural state and water depth were the best 'natural' predictors of whale movements and respiration. After considering natural variation, none of the response variables were significantly associated with seismic survey or vessel sounds. A whale's distance from shore and its orientation relative to the closest vessel were found to be significantly influenced by vessel proximity, which suggested some non-sound related disturbance. The lack of evidence that the whales responded to seismic survey sound and vessel traffic by changing either their movement or respiration patterns could indicate that the current mitigation strategy is effective. However, power analyses suggest that our sample sizes were too small to detect subtle to moderate changes in gray whale behaviour. Endang Species Res 30: 53-71, 2016 recovered and remains a small remnant of what it was in the 19 th century. Around 140 (CI: 134−146) non-calf individuals regularly occur off Sakhalin Island, Russia, with 36 reproductive females and an annual population rate of increase of 3.3% (Cooke et al. 2013), although issues regarding population structure remain (see IWC 2015). The western gray whale population is considered to be one of the most endangered baleen whale populations (Clapham & Baker 2002, Weller et al. 2002 and is currently listed as Critically Endangered by IUCN and Category I in the Red Book of Russia (Red Book of the Russian Federation 2000, Baillie et al. 2004).Human activities, particularly those related to oil and gas exploration and development, have been increasing in the past 15 yr off northeastern Sakhalin Island, on and near the only known major feeding area of this population of gray whales. To minimize the impacts of such activity on the whales, several mitigation and monitoring plans (MMP) have been implemented targeting specific activities, such as seismic surveys, platform installation, dredging and pipeline placement (Johnson et al. 2007, SEIC 2005, 2006. Despite efforts to reduce overall sound exposure levels, responses by the whales wer...

The aim – to study clinical characteristics of patients with arterial hypertension, symptoms of heart failure and preserved left ventricular (LV) ejection fraction (EF) depending on the value of E/e´ at rest and after submaximal exercise testing (SET). Material and methods. A prospective study involved 103 patients, average age 65.4±10.8 years, with clinical signs of heart failure, LV EF ≥ 50 % and signs of LV diastolic dysfunction. Echocardiography with tissue Doppler, SET, applanational tonometry were conducted. The level of NT-proBNP was studied. According to E/e´, patients were divided into 3 groups: E/e´ > 13 at rest (group І), E/e´ > 13 after SET (group ІІ), E/e´ < 13 after the SET (group ІІІ). Results. Group І included 64 (62.1 %), group ІІ – 24 (23.3 %), group ІІІ – 15 (14.5 %) patients. Patients were comparable regarding age, gender, frequency of earlier myocardial infarction and the average level of systolic blood pressure. Patients of group І, compared to those in groups ІІ and ІІІ, more often had atrial fibrillation, chronic kidney disease and anemia (all Р<0.01). Frequencies of diabetes mellitus and obesity in group ІІ were larger than in group ІІІ: 12 (50 %) and 4 (26.6 %); Р<0.05) and 15 (62.5 %) and 3 (20 %); Р<0.01), respectively. Severity of heart failure by NYHA was greatest in group І, less – in group ІІ and the smallest – in group ІІІ (all Р<0.01). Group ІІ, compared to group ІІІ, had worse exercise tolerance based on submaximal exercise test duration (7.2±1.7 and 8.6±1.9 minutes, Р<0.01) and power (50.0±19.9 and 68.3±22.0 W, Р<0.02), higher left atrial volume index (LAVI) 38.7±1.2 and 35.3±1.2 ml/m2 Р<0.05, left ventricular myocardial mass index (LVMI) 138.7±13.7 and 128.0±35.1 mg/m2 Р<0.05 and levels of NT-proBNP 422.8±93.8 and 134.3±53.5 pg/ml. Conclusions. Patients with E/e´ > 13 at rest differ from those with E/e´ increase after SET, by decrease of exercise tolerance and higher frequency of comorbidities. In patients with arterial hypertension, heart failure II–III classes NYHA and unchanged E/e´ at rest, its increase more than 13 after SET was noted in 61.5 % patients, and was associated less exercise load, greater frequency of obesity and type 2 diabetes, greater LVMI and LAVI and higher levels of NT-proBNP.

The aim — to determine the frequency of different combinations of criteria of heart failure (HF) with preserved ventricular ejection fraction (EF), established by the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) in 2016, in symptomatic patients with arterial hypertension (AH) in clinical practice and to assess their relationship to the clinical profile and the structural and functional state of the heart and arteries.Materials and methods. The study included 103 patients aged 43 to 85 years, with symptoms and signs of HF, AH and LVEF ³ 50 %, which had signs of diastolic dysfunction (DD) according to Doppler EchoCG data. The level of N­terminal fragment of the brain natriuretic peptide (NT­proBNP) was assessed by an enzyme immunoassay. The pulse wave velocity (carotid­femoral) (PWVcf) was assessed using applanation tonometry. Using ECG, the back wall thickness (BWT) of the left ventricle (LV) and interventricular septal thickness (IST), end­diastolic index (EDI) and end­systolic index (ESI) of the LV, left ventricular myocardial index (LVMI), left atrium volume index (LAVI) and left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF). Early (E) and late diastolic left ventricular filling velocity (A), E/A ratio, diastolic speed of septal and lateral motion of fibrous mitral valve ring, the mean value e¢, the relation Е/e¢, tricuspidal regurgitation velocity (TRV), the deceleration time of early diastolic filling (DT) and left ventricular isovolumic relaxation time (IVRT), and systolic pulmonary artery pressure (SPAP) — with the use of Doppler EchoCG were evaluated. Patients with ratio E/e¢ 9 — 13 at rest underwent diastolic stress test.Results and discussion. According to the ESC algorithm, HF was absent in 11 (10.6 %) patients (group 1); 28 (30.4 %) patients had structural criteria and no functional criteria (group 2); 64 (69.5 %) patients had three structural and functional criteria of HF according to ESC algorithm (group 3). High left ventricular filling pressure (LVFP) was found in all 35 (54.6 %) patients of group 3 without atrial fibrillation (AF) and in 7 (26.9 %) patients of group 3. Normal left ventricular filling pressure was found in all patients of group 1 and 7 (26.9 %) patients of group 2. Left ventricular filling pressure could not be identified in 4 (36.3 %) patients of group 1 and 12 (46.1 %) patients of group 2 (all p < 0.01). AF was present in 29 (45.3 %) patients of group 3 and in 2 patients (7.1 %) of group 2 (p < 0.01). Increase in SPAP was noted in 52 (81.2 %) patients of group 3 and 4 (14.2 %) patients of group 2 (p < 0.01). The dilatation of the right ventricle (RV) was more pronounced in group 3 than in groups 2 and 1 (p < 0.01 and p < 0.05). Patients of groups 1 and 2 were comparable according to PWVcf, patients of group 3 had higher values of this indicator than those of groups 2 and 1 (all p < 0.01). E/e¢ while exercise stress was more than 13 in 78.5 % patients of group 2 and in 18.2 % of group 1 (p < 0.01). Groups 2 and 3 had high levels of NT­proBNP — 438.4 ± 97.2 and 1057.3 ± 157.0 pg/ml, accordingly, in group 1 its level was 199.7 ± 17.2 pg/ml (all p < 0.01).Conclusions. In 70 % of patients with hypertension and clinical signs of HF, both structural and functional criteria of diagnosis of HF with preserved LV EF were defined according to the recommendations of the ESC (2016), which was associated with an increase in LV feeling pressure, AF — in 45 %, pulmonary hypertension — in 52 (81.2 %), with right ventricle dilatation — in 81 % and 27 % increase in PWVcf in compared with age and sex matched patients with AH without HF. AH patients with only two structural criteria of heart failure with a preserved LVEF in the absence of functional criteria (30 % of cases) differ from patients with AH without HF in terms of the level of NT­proBNP, an increase in E/e’ while exercise (85 % of cases) and comparable severity of clinical signs of heart failure.

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