Sperm is particularly susceptible to reactive oxygen species (ROS) during critical phases of spermiogenesis. However, the level of seminal ROS is restricted by seminal antioxidants which have beneficial effects on sperm parameters and developmental potentials. Mitochondria and sperm plasma membrane are two major sites of ROS generation in sperm cells. Besides, leukocytes including polymer phonuclear (PMN) leukocytes and macrophages produce broad category of molecules including oxygen free radicals, non-radical species and reactive nitrogen species. Physiological role of ROS increase the intracellular cAMP which then activate protein kinase in male reproductive system. This indicates that spermatozoa need small amounts of ROS to acquire the ability of nuclear maturation regulation and condensation to fertilize the oocyte. There is a long list of intrinsic and extrinsic factors which can induce oxidative stress to interact with lipids, proteins and DNA molecules. As a result, we have lipid peroxidation, DNA fragmentation, axonemal damage, denaturation of the enzymes, over generation of superoxide in the mitochondria, lower antioxidant activity and finally abnormal spermatogenesis. If oxidative stress is considered as one of the main cause of DNA damage in the germ cells, then there should be good reason for antioxidant therapy in these conditions.

The sperm DNA damage may occur in testis, genital ducts, and also after ejaculation. Mechanisms altering chromatin remodeling are abortive apoptosis and oxidative stress resulting from reactive oxygen species. Three classifications of intratesticular, post-testicular, and external factors have been correlated with increased levels of human sperm DNA damage which can affect the potential of fertility. Lifestyle, environment, medical, and iatrogenic factors might be considered to cause dysmetabolism to make distracting interactions and endocrine disrupting compounds. As a result, these may induce chromatin/DNA alteration in germ cells, which may be transmitted across generations with phenotypic consequences. Alcohol consumption may not increase the rate of sperm residual histones and protamine deficiency; however, it causes an increase in the percentage of spermatozoa with DNA fragmentation and apoptosis. In a medical problem as spinal cord injury, poor semen parameters and sperm DNA damage were reported. Infection induces reactive oxygen species production, decreases the total antioxidant capacity and sperm DNA fragmentation or antigen production that lead to sperm dysfunctions and DNA fragmentation. While reactive oxygen species generation increases with age, oxidative stress may be responsible for the age-dependent sperm DNA damage. The exposing of reproductive organs in older men to oxidative stress for a long time may produce more DNA-damaged spermatozoa than youngers. Examining the sperm chromatin quality in testicular cancer and Hodgkin’s lymphoma patients prior to chemotherapy demonstrated the high incidence of DNA damage and low compaction in spermatozoa at the time of the diagnosis. In chemotherapy cycle with genotoxic agents in cancer patients, an increase in sperm DNA damage was shown after treatment. In overall, those factors occurring during the prenatal or the adult life alter the distribution of proteins associated with sperm chromatin induce changes in germ cells which can be detected in infertile patients.

Background:Genital tuberculosis (GTB) is an important cause of female infertility, especially in developing countries. The positive results of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in endometrial GTB in the absence of tubal damage raise the possibility of the detection of sub-clinical or latent disease, with doubtful benefits of treatment.Objective:To evaluate the mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in endometrial biopsy samples collected from unexplained infertile women attending Yazd Research and Clinical Center for Infertility by using PCR techniques.Materials and Methods:In this cross sectional study, 144 infertile women with unexplained infertility aged 20-35 years old and normal Histro-saplango graphy findings were enrolled. Endometrial biopsy samples from each participant were tested for mycobacterium tuberculosis detecting by PCR. In 93 patients, peritoneal fluid was also taken for culture and PCR.Results: The PCR results of endometrial specimens were negative in all cases, demonstrating that there was no GTB infection among our patients.Conclusion:Our results showed that GTB could not be considered as a major problem in women with unexplained infertility. Although, studies have indicated that PCR is a useful method in diagnosing early GTB disease in infertile women with no demonstrable evidence of tubal or endometrial involvement.

Background:Teratoasthenozoospermia (TA) is a severe form of male infertility with no clear etiology.Objective:To compare the level of intracellular anion superoxide (O2–), heat shock protein A2 (HSPA2) and protamine deficiencies in ejaculated spermatozoa between teratoasthenozoospermic and normozoospermic men.Materials and Methods:In this case- control study, semen samples of 20 infertile men, with TA (with normal morphology lower than 4%_ and total motility lower than 40% ) as the case group and 20 normozoospermic fertile men as the control group were evaluated for intracellular O2– and HSPA2 by flow cytometry and protamine deficiency by Chromomycin A3 (CMA3) test.Results:The rate of CMA3+ spermatozoa in the case group was higher than controls (p=0.001). The percentages of HSPA2+ spermatozoa in the cases were significantly lower than controls (p=0.001). Also, intracellular O2– levels in the case group were significantly higher than controls (p=0.001) and had positive correlations with sperm apoptosis (r=0.79, p=0.01) and CMA3 positive sperm (r=0.76, p=0.01), but negative correlations with normal morphology (r=-0.81, p=0.01) and motility (r=-0.81, p=0.01). There was no significant correlation between intracellular O2– and HSPA2 in the case group (r=0.041, p=0.79).Conclusion:We suggest that the increase in intracellular O2–, decrease in spermatozoa HSPA2+, and high percentages of spermatozoa with immature chromatin might be considered as etiologies of infertility in TA patients.

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