CD4+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CD4-CTLs) have been reported to play a protective role in several viral infections. However, little is known in humans about the biology of CD4-CTL generation, their functional properties, and heterogeneity, especially in relation to other well-described CD4+ memory T cell subsets. We performed single-cell RNA sequencing in more than 9000 cells to unravel CD4-CTL heterogeneity, transcriptional profile, and clonality in humans. Single-cell differential gene expression analysis revealed a spectrum of known transcripts, including several linked to cytotoxic and costimulatory function that are expressed at higher levels in the TEMRA (effector memory T cells expressing CD45RA) subset, which is highly enriched for CD4-CTLs, compared with CD4+ T cells in the central memory (TCM) and effector memory (TEM) subsets. Simultaneous T cell antigen receptor (TCR) analysis in single cells and bulk subsets revealed that CD4-TEMRA cells show marked clonal expansion compared with TCM and TEM cells and that most of CD4-TEMRA were dengue virus (DENV)–specific in donors with previous DENV infection. The profile of CD4-TEMRA was highly heterogeneous across donors, with four distinct clusters identified by the single-cell analysis. We identified distinct clusters of CD4-CTL effector and precursor cells in the TEMRA subset; the precursor cells shared TCR clonotypes with CD4-CTL effectors and were distinguished by high expression of the interleukin-7 receptor. Our identification of a CD4-CTL precursor population may allow further investigation of how CD4-CTLs arise in humans and, thus, could provide insights into the mechanisms that may be used to generate durable and effective CD4-CTL immunity.

While progress has been made in characterizing humoral immunity to Zika virus (ZIKV) in humans, little is known regarding the corresponding T cell responses to ZIKV. Here, we investigate the kinetics and viral epitopes targeted by T cells responding to ZIKV and address the critical question of whether preexisting dengue virus (DENV) T cell immunity modulates these responses. We find that memory T cell responses elicited by prior infection with DENV or vaccination with tetravalent dengue attenuated vaccines (TDLAV) recognize ZIKV-derived peptides. This cross-reactivity is explained by the sequence similarity of the two viruses, as the ZIKV peptides recognized by DENV-elicited memory T cells are identical or highly conserved in DENV and ZIKV. DENV exposure prior to ZIKV infection also influences the timing and magnitude of the T cell response. ZIKV-reactive T cells in the acute phase of infection are detected earlier and in greater magnitude in DENV-immune patients. Conversely, the frequency of ZIKV-reactive T cells continues to rise in the convalescent phase in DENV-naive donors but declines in DENV-preexposed donors, compatible with more efficient control of ZIKV replication and/or clearance of ZIKV antigen. The quality of responses is also influenced by previous DENV exposure, and ZIKV-specific CD8 T cells from DENV-preexposed donors selectively upregulated granzyme B and PD1, unlike DENV-naive donors. Finally, we discovered that ZIKV

Background. Each year dengue virus (DENV) infects 400 million human but causes symptomatic disease in only a subset of patients, suggesting that host genetic factors may play a role. HLA molecules that restrict T-cell responses are one of the most polymorphic host factors in humans.Methods. Here we map HLA DRB1-restricted DENV-specific epitopes in individuals previously exposed to DENV, to identify the breadth and specificity of CD4 + T-cell responses. To investigate whether HLA-specific variations in the magnitude of response might predict associations between dengue outcomes and HLA-DRB1 alleles, we assembled samples from hospitalized patients with known severity of disease.Results. The capsid protein followed by nonstructural protein 3 (NS3), NS2A, and NS5 were the most targeted proteins. We further noticed a wide variation in magnitude of T-cell responses as a function of the restricting DRB1 allele and found several HLA alleles that showed trends toward a lower risk of hospitalized disease were associated with a higher magnitude of T-cell responses.Conclusions. Comprehensive identification of unique CD4 + T-cell epitopes across the 4 DENV serotypes allows the testing of T-cell responses by use of a simple, approachable technique and points to important implications for vaccine design.

Dengue virus (DENV) is responsible for growing numbers of infections worldwide and has proven to be a significant challenge for vaccine development. We previously demonstrated that CD8 ϩ T cell responses elicited by a dengue live attenuated virus (DLAV) vaccine resemble those observed after natural infection. In this study, we screened peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from donors vaccinated with a tetravalent DLAV vaccine (TV005) with pools of dengue virusderived predicted major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II binding peptides. The definition of CD4 ϩ T cell responses after live vaccination is important because CD4 ϩ T cells are known contributors to host immunity, including cytokine production, help for CD8 ϩ T and B cells, and direct cytotoxicity against infected cells. While responses to all antigens were observed, DENV-specific CD4 ϩ T cells were focused predominantly on the capsid and nonstructural NS3 and NS5 antigens. Importantly, CD4 ϩ T cell responses in vaccinees were similar in magnitude and breadth to those after natural infection, recognized the same antigen hierarchy, and had similar profiles of HLA restriction. We conclude that TV005 vaccination has the capacity to elicit CD4 ϩ cell responses closely mirroring those observed in a population associated with natural immunity.IMPORTANCE The development of effective vaccination strategies against dengue virus infection is of high global public health interest. Here we study the CD4 T cell responses elicited by a tetravalent live attenuated dengue vaccine and show that they resemble responses seen in humans naturally exposed to dengue virus. This is an important issue, since it is likely that optimal immunity induced by a vaccine requires induction of CD4 ϩ responses against the same antigens as those recognized as dominant in natural infection. Detailed knowledge of the T cell response may further contribute to the identification of robust correlates of protection against dengue virus.

BackgroundDengue is a major public health problem worldwide. Assessment of adaptive immunity is important to understanding immunopathology and to define correlates of protection against dengue virus (DENV). To enable global assessment of CD4+ T cell responses, we mapped HLA-DRB1-restricted DENV-specific CD4+ T cell epitopes in individuals previously exposed to DENV in the general population of the dengue-endemic region of Managua, Nicaragua.MethodsHLA class II epitopes in the population of Managua were identified by an in vitro IFNγ ELISPOT assay. CD4+ T cells purified by magnetic bead negative selection were stimulated with HLA-matched epitope pools in the presence of autologous antigen-presenting cells, followed by pool deconvolution to identify specific epitopes. The epitopes identified in this study were combined with those previously identified in the DENV endemic region of Sri Lanka, to generate a “megapool” (MP) consisting of 180 peptides specifically designed to achieve balanced HLA and DENV serotype coverage. The DENV CD4MP180 was validated by intracellular cytokine staining assays.ResultsWe detected responses directed against a total of 431 epitopes, representing all 4 DENV serotypes, restricted by 15 different HLA-DRB1 alleles. The responses were associated with a similar pattern of protein immunodominance, overall higher magnitude of responses, as compared to what was observed previously in the Sri Lanka region. Based on these epitope mapping studies, we designed a DENV CD4 MP180 with higher and more consistent coverage, which allowed the detection of CD4+ T cell DENV responses ex vivo in various cohorts of DENV exposed donors worldwide, including donors from Nicaragua, Brazil, Singapore, Sri Lanka, and U.S. domestic flavivirus-naïve subjects immunized with Tetravalent Dengue Live-Attenuated Vaccine (TV005). This broad reactivity reflects that the 21 HLA-DRB1 alleles analyzed in this and previous studies account for more than 80% of alleles present with a phenotypic frequency ≥5% worldwide, corresponding to 92% phenotypic coverage of the general population (i.e., 92% of individuals express at least one of these alleles).ConclusionThe DENV CD4 MP180 can be utilized to measure ex vivo responses to DENV irrespective of geographical location.