Miniperc and retrograde intrarenal surgery were more effective than shock wave lithotripsy to treat 1 to 2 cm radiolucent lower calyceal renal calculi in terms of a better stone-free rate, and lesser auxiliary and re-treatment rates. However, miniperc resulted in more complications, greater operative time and radiation exposure, and a longer hospital stay.

In order to address the issue of urinary tract infection in patients with neurogenic bladders, multiple factors need to be looked into and corrected. Further research is required, especially in the area of compromised host defence mechanisms. An individualized approach, which attempts to optimize each factor is recommended.

Monopolar TURP, bipolar TURP, and PVP are equally efficacious at 12-month follow-up. PVP has added advantages of lesser blood loss, lesser need for blood transfusion (especially for prostate volume 50-80 cc), and shorter catheterization time.

Urothelial cancer patients are prone to recurrence, and there is no marker to predict which cases become refractory to the immunotherapy given to these patients. Tumour behaviour is decided by the dynamics between the pro-and antitumorigenic cytokines. In this study, 27 cytokines were estimated in serum and urine of 72 urothelial cancer patients and 42 healthy volunteer controls. Serum cytokines IL-1RA, IL-4 and RANTES were in significantly higher concentration in serum of patients compared to controls, while IL-2 was significantly less in concentration. Patients were found to have significantly high concentrations of 12 urinary cytokines

For upper ureteral stones of size greater than 2 cm, LU has a greater stone clearance rate, comparable operating time, lesser need for auxiliary procedure, and complication rate as compared to URS.