Small-scale farmers in the Brazilian Amazon collectively hold tenure over more than 12 million ha of permanent forest reserves, as required by the Forest Code. The trade-off between forest conservation and other land uses entails opportunity costs for them and for the country, which have not been sufficiently studied. We assessed the potential income generated by multiple use forest management for farmers and compared it to the income potentially derived from six other agricultural land uses. Income from the forest was from (i) logging, carried out by a logging company in partnership with farmers' associations; and (ii) harvesting the seeds of Carapa guianensis (local name andiroba) for the production of oil. We then compared the income generated by multiple-use forest management with the income from different types of agrarian systems. According to our calculations in this study, the mean annual economic benefits from multiple forest use are OPEN ACCESSForests 2014, 5 1509 the same as the least productive agrarian system, but only 25% of the annual income generated by the most productive system. Although the income generated by logging may be considered low when calculated on an annual basis and compared to incomes generated by agriculture, the one-time payment after logging is significant (US$5,800 to US$33,508) and could be used to implement more intensive and productive cropping systems such as planting black pepper. The income from forest management could also be used to establish permanent fields in deforested areas for highly productive annual crops using conservation agriculture techniques. These techniques are alternatives to the traditional land use based on periodic clearing of the forest. Nevertheless, the shift in current practices towards adoption of more sustainable conservation agriculture techniques will also require the technical and legal support of the State to help small farmers apply these alternatives, which aim to integrate forest management in sustainable agricultural production systems.

Community forest management (CFM) is considered an alternative way to protect forests while providing income for smallholders. Since the mid-1990s, the number of CFM projects has rapidly increased in the Brazilian Amazon, although most of them still face several difficulties. In this paper, we discuss the obstacles to the financial viability of CFM in this region and propose some ways to overcome them. Based on evidence from five case studies, we assess the extent to which sustainable forest management for commercial timber production contributes to smallholder income. We show that harvesting timber only provides a limited cash income to smallholders, even though forest covers 80% OPEN ACCESSForests 2015, 6 4229 of their landholding. Market access to timber is very uncertain and smallholder communities often fail to make a profit from their timber. Minimum remunerative public prices and support for timber marketing are thus needed. Simpler and more flexible procedures are required to reduce the high transaction costs of obtaining a permit and increase smallholder involvement in legal forest management for commercial purposes. Finally, a better assessment of timber potential in smallholder forest reserves through systematic inventories would be useful to avoid arousing false expectations.

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The FI2S appears to be a proper assessment tool for pain, mobility, strength and function in shoulder disorders, easy to administer and of good metric value.

Dans l'État du Pará, 60 % des forêts destinées à l'aménagement sont des forêts paysannes. Les concessions forestières d'entreprise ne pourront fournir au mieux que la moitié de la consommation actuelle. À quelques exceptions près, les communautés traditionnelles et les familles paysannes n'ont ni l'expérience technique ni la capacité économique pour conduire l'exploitation commerciale des bois : l'aménagement est réalisé par le biais d'accords avec une entreprise, selon différentes modalités. Dans ce contexte, les contrats entre communautés et entreprise sont de nature très variée et aboutissent au contrôle total par les entreprises privées de toutes les opérations, du plan d'aménagement à l'exploitation. Les politiques publiques et la législation forestière cherchent aujourd'hui à améliorer les capacités des communautés locales à défendre leurs intérêts dans le cadre de tels partenariats. Cette étude analyse le cadre financier de l'entreprise par rapport à l'organisation paysanne pour son exécution, et les éléments clés qui permettent un meilleur contrôle : les inventaires pré- exploitation, la diversification de la production de bois d'oeuvre et de produits forestiers non ligneux, la commercialisation, le suivi et le contrôle des opérations d'exploitation. Il est proposé des pistes de politiques publiques qui doivent aider à la diffusion de l'aménagement paysan dans différentes contextes fonciers : unités de conservation et forêts de production, périmètres de colonisation agricole. L'article discute des modalités d'action et d'implantation d'un service public d'assistance technique et financière au profit des agriculteurs et des communautés. Le potentiel de l'intégration de la gestion forestière au sein des systèmes de production paysans est discuté dans le cadre du débat actuel de réforme du code forestier. (Résumé d'auteur)