؉ T cells for expression patterns of markers for memory differentiation, survival (CD127), senescence (CD57), and negative regulation (programmed death-1). We show that viral control and the predicted tempo of HIV disease progression in the first year of infection was associated with a synchronous differentiation of HIV-specific and total CD8 ؉ memory subpopulations. At 6 -9 mo postinfection, those with low viral set points had a significantly higher proportion of early differentiated HIV-specific and total memory CD8

After heavy M. tuberculosis exposure, the events that determine why some individuals resist TST/IGRA conversion are poorly defined. Enrichment of the TNF signaling gene set among RSTR monocytes from multiple distinct cohorts suggests an important role for the monocyte TNF response in determining this alternative immune outcome.

All authors have declared that no conflict of interest exists. Funding agency mandate requires this work to be published using a CC BY 4.0 license.

Barley is grown as a crop in South Africa, mainly for use in the barley beer (lager) industry, particularly in the production of barley malt. This investigation was done to find out what fungal infection and mycotoxin contamination this barley and the malt contained. The survey, done in 2005, not only covered barley and malt but also the final product in the form of several brands of beer purchased from retail outlets. Analysis was done using a range of methodologies including chromatography, immunoaffinity/fluorimetry and cytotoxicity testing. The results show that barley, which also includes barley sold directly to the public, and malt, contain various fungi, sometimes at high incidence and also a range of mycotoxins which persisted through, although at low levels, to beer. The malt showed a different pattern of micro flora, as compared to the barley, which indicates infection during the malting process, which is not uncommon. Interestingly, fumonisin B1 was found in some of the samples, as well as the beer, although in the latter case these were at very low levels. Recent studies have shown that the immunoaffinity/fluorimetry method can give false positives for the fumonisins, so these results were confirmed by high performance liquid chromatography. As is the case with other cereals grown in South Africa, there is the concern that the public is exposed to mycotoxins on a regular basis through the consumption of products made from them.

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