BACKGROUND Nosocomial infections are one of the leading causes of death with considerable economic costs in the form of prolonged stay, loss of work hours, increased use of drugs, need for isolation, and drugs. Diagnostic equipment is used for the diagnosis, risk assessment, monitoring of disease or response to treatment for outpatient or inpatient in emergency or as a routine procedure. Ultrasound (US) is one of the most commonly used diagnostic equipment from nearly half a century. With the increasing use of ultrasound in medical diagnosis, the risk of infections via the ultrasound probe, couch, or gel from one patient to another patient is on the rise. Ultrasound equipment has been investigated to determine its role in cross infection as these devices come into direct contact with patients and sonographers during scanning procedures. We wanted to assess the microbiological flora of the ultrasound equipment used for non-invasive examinations and assess the efficacy of decontamination regimes currently used for ultrasound equipment. METHODS Swabs from 6 ultrasound machines were taken 15 times over a 3-month duration. Swabs were collected from the surface of the probe, keyboard, gel and probe holder using sterile swab soaked in thioglycolate broth. Swabs were inoculated on Blood agar and MacConkey agar at 37 o C for 24 hours. The isolated organisms were identified by standard microbiological techniques. The protocol of decontamination of the ultrasound equipment was noted. The data was then analysed as number and percentage. RESULTS A total of 80 swabs were taken from four ultrasound machines. Sixty swabs (70%) did not grow any organisms out of the total 80 swabs. Twenty swabs (30%) grew 23 organisms, out of which 3 swabs grew two organisms. Swabs collected from the gel grew the most number of organisms. Pseudomonas species was the most common organism isolated followed by Klebsiella species. CONCLUSIONS Due to increase in the patient load and ultrasound being used more commonly in day to day practice for diagnosis as well as prognosis, a routine methodology needs to be followed for the patient safety. Protocol for ultrasound equipment decontamination as well as regular swab culture has to be framed to prevent nosocomial infections.

Background and Objectives: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS CoV-2) is a highly transmissible and pathogenic coronavirus that emerged in late 2019. Cycle threshold (Ct) value of real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assay inversely correlated with viral load and can provide an indirect method of quantifying the number of copies of viral RNA in the sample is not reported clinically. Hence, this study was undertaken to compare the Ct values of patients tested positive for SARS CoV-2 by RT-PCR with severity of illness, duration of hospital stay, and mortality. Materials and Methods: A retrospective study was conducted over a period of 6 months in a tertiary care hospital in Bangalore. All patients tested positive for SARS CoV-2 by RT-PCR and admitted in our hospital were included in the study. Details of the patients on the duration of hospital stay, age, presence of comorbidities, intubation, and mortality were collected. Results: The study comprised of 80 patients, 48 (60%) males and 32 (40%) females. The mean age of the study population was 38.38 years. Majority of patients 41.25% had Ct value between 25 and 30. Patients with lower Ct values were significant associated with increased duration of hospital stay and infected more than one person in family indicating higher probability of transmission of infection. Mortality showed significant association with patients of more than 60 years' age. Interpretation and Conclusions: The study shows possible association between Ct values of SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR assay with the duration of hospitalization, infectivity, and mortality. Mention of Ct value along with the positive report could potentially be used to guide patient care management, infection control, and occupational health decisions.

HIV is a retrovirus that primarily infects CD4 presenting cells of the human immune system, such as macrophages and dendritic cells. People die of AIDS because the disease remains undetected for long periods of time. HIV diagnostic testing has come a long way since it was introduced in the early 1980s. Early diagnosis is key to successful treatment of HIV. Assay selection is based on initial screening results and clinical information provided by the physician, both of which are essential for the laboratory’s ability to make accurate diagnoses. Detecting HIV with high specificity and sensitivity in the early stages of infection requires simple, accurate and economical methods. In this chapter we have described the indications & criteria’s for HIV testing, HIV diagnosis by utilizing variety of immunological and molecular methods, like ELISA, rapid diagnostics, Western blotting, indirect immunoassays, and nucleic acid-based tests. Diagnostic laboratories must use testing algorithms to ensure the accuracy of results and the optimal use of lab resources. Participation in laboratory quality assurance programs are also essential to ensure that diagnostic laboratories provide accurate, timely and clinically relevant test results. HIV testing is the first step in maintaining a healthy life and preventing HIV transmission.