This study investigated the role of self-directed learning (SDL) in problem-based learning (PBL) and examined how SDL relates to self-regulated learning (SRL). First, it is explained how SDL is implemented in PBL environments. Similarities between SDL and SRL are highlighted. However, both concepts differ on important aspects. SDL includes an additional premise of giving students a broader role in the selection and evaluation of learning materials. SDL can encompass SRL, but the opposite does not hold. Further, a review of empirical studies on SDL and SRL in PBL was conducted. Results suggested that SDL and SRL are developmental processes, that the "self" aspect is crucial, and that PBL can foster SDL. It is concluded that conceptual clarity of what SDL entails and guidance for both teachers and students can help PBL to bring forth self-directed learners.

To facilitate the development of expertise in medical school, it is important to teach the basic sciences in a clinical context, and to introduce patient problems early in the curriculum in order to support the processes of encapsulation and illness script formation. In addition, during clerkships ample time should be devoted to enabling reflection on patient problems with peers and expert doctors.

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This paper examines the transferability of successful cueing approaches from text and static visualization research to animations. Theories of visual attention and learning as well as empirical evidence for the instructional effectiveness of attention cueing are reviewed and, based on Mayer's theory of multimedia learning, a framework was developed for classifying three functions for cueing: (1) selection-cues guide attention to specific locations, (2) organization-cues emphasize structure, and (3) integration-cues explicate relations between and within elements. The framework was used to structure the discussion of studies on cueing in animations. It is concluded that attentional cues may facilitate the selection of information in animations and sometimes improve learning, whereas organizational and relational cueing requires more consideration on how to enhance understanding. Consequently, it is suggested to develop cues that work in animations rather than borrowing effective cues from static representations. Guidelines for future research on attention cueing in animations are presented. Keywords Instructional animations . Cognitive load theory . Instructional designRecent advances in software and computer technology enable designers of computer-based instruction to use dynamic visualizations, such as animation and video, to help learners remember complex dynamic systems and, ultimately, understand the materials (Lowe 2004). At present, the majority of animations present information in close correspondence with the referential situation, without highlighting the information or providing cues to help learners process the material. However, manipulating the visuospatial characteristics of animations may make them more effective, just as manipulating these aspects in static

Structured reflection while practising with cases appears to foster the learning of clinical knowledge more effectively than the generation of immediate or differential diagnoses and therefore seems to be an effective instructional approach to developing diagnostic competence in students.