Demographic analysis of the captive Asian elephants in North America indicates that the population is not self‐sustaining. First year mortality is nearly 30%, but perhaps more important, the fecundity is extremely low (Mx = 0.01–0.02) throughout the prime reproductive years. Without continued importation or a drastic increase in birth rates, the Asian elephant population in North America will drop to approximately 10 elephants in 50 years and be demographically extinct. Model mortality and fecundity curves needed to establish a self‐sustaining Asian elephant population in North America show that fecundity must increase four to eight times the historical rates. Emerging techniques such as artificial insemination may assist in making the goal of a self‐sustaining population more realizable by allowing reproduction by the numerous females that do not have access to a male, but other obstacles exist as well. A self‐sustaining population will present challenges such as maintaining the significant number of male offspring that will be produced. Importation of young females from documented self‐sustaining populations overseas is one option that would alleviate the need for a self‐sustaining Asian elephant population in North America and the number of imports per year would be minimal. Zoo Biol 19:299–309, 2000. © 2000 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

The concepts of longevity (longest lived) and life expectancy (typical age at death) are common demographic parameters that provide insight into a population. Defined as the longest lived individual, longevity is easily calculated but is not representative, as only one individual will live to this extreme. Longevity records for North American Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and African elephants (Loxodonta africana) have not yet been set, as the oldest individuals (77 and 53 years, respectively) are still alive. One Asian elephant lived to 86 years in the Taipei Zoo. This is comparable to the maximum (though not typical) longevity estimated in wild populations. Calculation of life expectancy, however, must use statistics that are appropriate for the data available, the distribution of the data, and the species' biology. Using a simple arithmetic mean to describe the non‐normally distributed age at death for elephant populations underestimates life expectancy. Use of life‐table analysis to estimate median survivorship or survival analysis to estimate average survivorship are more appropriate for the species' biology and the data available, and provide more accurate estimates. Using a life‐table, the median life expectancy for female Asian elephants (Lx=0.50) is 35.9 years in North America and 41.9 years in Europe. Survival analysis estimates of average life expectancy for Asian elephants are 47.6 years in Europe and 44.8 years in North America. Survival analysis estimates for African elephants are less robust due to less data. Currently the African elephant average life expectancy estimate in North America is 33.0 years, but this is likely to increase with more data, as it has over the past 10 years. Zoo Biol 23:365–373, 2004. © 2004 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

Strategic collection planning is a relatively new concept for zoos. Until recently, personal preference, availability, and competition determined which species or subspecies were acquired. In the last few years, however, there have been attempts to employ systematic criteria for taxon selection that better serve conservation objectives. Planning currently occurs at three levels: global, regional, and institutional. The current planning process is reviewed and recommendations are made for ways the process might be improved. An efficient, economical, and effective collection planning process is critical if modern, professionally managed zoological institutions are to make a significant impact on wildlife and ecosystem conservation. Rather than selecting taxa solely on the possibility of a future reintroduction, serious consideration should be given to the ability of a species or subspecies to contribute to more immediate conservation goals, including public education, fund raising to support field conservation, and scientific research. Because resources are limited, perhaps zoos should focus their long-term breeding programs primarily on flagship species-that is, those that have the potential to excite public attention and help to protect habitat and other taxa-rather than on a broad array of species that are currently endangered. o 1995 Wifey-Liss, Inc. A strategic collection plan can be defined as a set of objectives for the composition of animal collections in zoos. This would typically include the number and type of species or subspecies as well as the number of individuals to be maintained. It may also include a proposed time schedule for implementation. Such plans can be formulated at three different levels: global, regional, and institutional [Foose and Hutchins, 19911. An institutional plan outlines the goals for a specific zoo's collection, which may be determined by the institution's mission statement, budget, current and proposed facilities, climate, and so forth. A regional plan focuses on the goals for an entire geographical region with an organized, cooperative breeding program (e.g., the North American AZA Species Survival Plano). A global plan is intended to integrate various regional plans, once they exist, into a coherent whole [IUDZG and IUCNlSSC CBSG, 19931. Strategic collection planning is a relatively new concept for zoos. Until recently, personal preference, availability, and competition determined which species or subspecies were acquired [Thomas, 1987; Diebold and Hutchins, 19911. In the last few years, however, there have been attempts to employ more systematic criteria for taxon selection that better serve conservation objectives [Bruning, 1990;Hutchins and Wiese, 1991; Foose et al., 1992bl. To assist its member institutions in the selection of appropriate taxa, the American Zoo and Aquarium Association (AZA) formed specialized committees called Taxon Advisory Groups, or TAGs [Hutchins and Wiese, 19911. Similar committees have been established in other regions of the world, includin...

In a review of the evidence for reduction in the severity of inbreeding depression in Speke's gazelle [Templeton and Read, pp. 241–261 in Genetics and Conservation: A Reference for Managing Wild Animal and Plant Populations, C.M. Schoenwald‐Cox, S.M. Chambers, B. MacBryde, and L. Thomas, eds., Reading, MA, Addison‐Weley, 1983; Templeton and Read, Zoo Biology 3:177–199, 1984] a flaw was found in the statistical analysis. Reanalysis of the 1983 data showed no significant reduction in the severity of inbreeding depression. An updated analysis using data from the 1992 Speke's Gazelle North American Regional Studbook [Fischer, St. Louis, St. Louis Zoological Park, 1993] also showed no significant reduction in the severity of inbreeding depression. While there is empirical evidence suggesting reduction in the severity of inbreeding depression in captive populations is possible through reduction of the founder base, maintenance of genetic variation must remain the primary goal of genetic management strategies for captive populations of exotic wildlife. Zoo Biol 16:9–16, 1997. © 1997 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

A nucleus population is a small captive population genetically supported by periodic importation of wild caught animals. Periodic importation will allow nucleus populations to maintain the same amount of gene diversity as larger captive populations that do not import wild caught animals. The function of nucleus populations as envisioned by the IUCN/SSC Captive Breeding Specialist Group (CBSG) is to make additional captive space available for endangered taxa not currently maintained in captivity. In this article, mathematical models are developed to assess the effectiveness of the nucleus population concept in reducing the population sizes necessary to maintain appreciable amounts of gene diversity in captive populations. It is shown that the Nucleus I population concept, as defined and promoted by the CBSG, requires an importation rate 10-20 times greater than they have indicated. Whereas nucleus populations are not appropriate for maintenance of significant amounts of gene diversity in long-term breeding programs, small populations can be valuable for research, education, and reintroduction projects with short-term goals. Decisions have to be made on which of the many endangered taxa will be maintained and for what purposes, if captive breeding is to be an effective component of species conservation. 0 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.