Background It is unclear whether child maltreatment is increasing or decreasing in England and Wales. More evidence is needed, from multiple sources and over longer periods of time, to explore trends in child maltreatment. We investigated whether the annual incidence of child maltreatment has changed over time, using official record data and time-series methods to establish long-term trends. Methods In this observational time-series analysis, we used six data sources (Government records for child mortality, police-recorded child homicides, crimes against children, child protection, and children in care; and NSPCC data) to estimate the incidence of child maltreatment in England and Wales and examine long-term trends. We included nationally representative data that could estimate the incidence of child maltreatment for more than 25 years. Our primary outcomes were the number of victims (age <20 years) or perpetrators (age >16 years) of child maltreatment per 12-month period in England, including or excluding Wales. We fitted Poisson regression models with year as the exposure and the number of victims or perpetrators of child maltreatment as the outcome (adjusted for population age-structure and size). When a linear trend was not appropriate, we fitted generalised additive models with penalised splines to visualise trends. Findings The incidence of child mortality by homicide or assault decreased by 90% (2•7 per 100 000 children) between 1858 and 2016 and the incidence of people guilty of child cruelty or neglect decreased by 83% (6•7 per 100 000 adults) between 1893 and 2016, whereas child protection registrations increased by 182% (328•7 per 100 000 children) between 1988 and 2016. Crimes against children and children entering care increased between 2000 and 2016. In 2016, 40 children died by homicide, with twice as many adolescent (15-19 years) deaths than infant (age <1 year) deaths. In 2016, 67 700 children were placed on the child protection register and neglect and emotional abuse were the most common reasons. Interpretation Although long-term trends have decreased, child maltreatment remains a major public health problem in England and Wales. Further research is needed to establish whether adolescents are a particularly vulnerable age group and whether neglect and emotional abuse are increasing. Future child protection policies and practices should respond to these areas of growing need.

Fertility declines across Europe and the Anglo-world have been explained as the result of reversals of intergenerational flows of wealth. According to this theory, the child was transformed from an economically-useful household asset to an emotionally-valued parental burden. This article is based on a comparative study of changing understandings of parenthood in three provincial English localities between 1850 and 1914. It works from the premise that in order to make sense of reproductive behaviour, it is essential to examine the meanings that men and women attached to childlessness, child-rearing and parenthood.It is argued that there was not a universal shift that made children into burdens. New understandings of the duties of parenthood did develop, but these were founded on class-, gender- and place-specific interpretations. These encouraged a minority of fathers and mothers to believe that together they had the capacity to improve the lives of their sons and daughters in pioneering ways. Given that husbands and wives had distinct motives for avoiding rearing many children and that the discussion of reproduction was shrouded in silence, the dissemination and use of new ideals of family was crucial in enabling birth control to be thought about respectably within marriage.

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It has been argued that domestic service heightened divisions of class and gender, and supported the private nuclear family in late nineteenth-century England. This case study of one urban locality (Lancaster) between 1880 and 1914 uses qualitative and quantitative techniques, particularly longitudinal record linkage, to explore relationships between live-in domestic servants and their employers. It is argued that there were considerable similarities between the backgrounds and life-cycle-related motivations of both servants and employers. Relationships were highly diverse, but service simultaneously depended upon and played a crucial role in sustaining complex, localized networks that extended far beyond the servant-employing household.

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