Based on Self-Determination Theory, the present study adopts a helicopter-perspective towards motivating (i.e., autonomy support, structure) and demotivating coaching (i.e., control, chaos). Among five independent samples, consisting of individual and team sport coaches (N = 893; Mage = 37.83 years) and athletes (N = 377; Mage = 17.46 years), Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) analyses were used to examine how a variety of coaching practices reflective of four different coaching styles (i.e., autonomy support, control, structure, and chaos), assessed with a new vignette-based instrument, related to one another.Findings revealed that the (de)motivating practices could be graphically presented within a two-dimensional circumplex, with the horizontal axis representing the level of needsupportive coaching behavior and the vertical axis representing the level of coach directiveness. Moreover, the four coaching styles could be segmented in eight more specific approaches (i.e. clarifying, guiding, attuning, participative, awaiting, abandoning, domineering, and demanding), which formed an ordered sinusoid pattern of correlations, both among each other and in relation to a variety of critical outcomes (e.g. coach need satisfaction, athletes' motivation). It is discussed how a circumplex approach produces both a more integrative and more fine-grained insight regarding (de)motivating coaching behaviour, with resulting implications for practice.

Leaders do not operate in social vacuums, but are imbedded in a web of interpersonal relationships with their teammates and coach. The present manuscript is the first to use social network analysis to provide more insight in the leadership structure within sports teams. Two studies were conducted, including respectively 25 teams (N = 308; Mage = 24.9 years old) and 21 teams (N = 267; Mage = 24.3 years old). The reliability of a fourfold athlete leadership categorization (task, motivational, social, external leader) was established by analyzing leadership networks, which mapped the complete leadership structure within a team. The study findings highlight the existence of shared leadership in sports teams. More specifically, regarding the task and external leadership roles, no significant differences were observed between the leadership quality of coaches and athlete leaders. However, athlete leaders were perceived as better motivational and social leaders than their coaches. Furthermore, both the team captain and informal athlete leaders shared the lead on the different leadership roles. Social network analysis was found to be a pioneering but valuable tool for obtaining a deeper insight in the leadership structure within sports teams.

Two studies investigated the structure of different athlete leadership networks and its relationship to cohesion using social network analysis. In Study 1, we examined the relationship between a general leadership quality network and task and social cohesion as measured by the Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ). In Study 2, we investigated the leadership networks for four different athlete leadership roles (task, motivational, social and external) and their association with task and social cohesion networks. In Study 1, the results demonstrated that the general leadership quality network was positively related to task and social cohesion. The results from Study 2 indicated positive correlations between the four leadership networks and task and social cohesion networks. Further, the motivational leadership network emerged as the strongest predictor of the task cohesion network, while the social leadership network was the strongest predictor of the social cohesion network. The results complement a growing body of research indicating that athlete leadership has a positive association with cohesion.

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The importance of high-quality leadership for team effectiveness is widely recognized, with recent viewpoints arguing shared leadership to be a more powerful predictor than vertical leadership. To identify changes in leadership structures over time, we longitudinally tracked the leadership structure of 27 newly-formed teams (N = 195), all having an initial structure of vertical leadership. Our findings demonstrated that the average team leadership strengthened over the course of the 24-week project and leadership tended to become more distributed among team members. Regarding the antecedents of these changes, we found evidence that the more team members are perceived as warm or competent, the higher their perceived influence. Finally, examining the consequences of these changes, the leadership structure was found to be related with team performance in that teams with higher average leadership perceptions performed better. These findings underpin the importance of shared leadership, thereby suggesting leaders to empower their team members.