Noninvasive genetic sampling of faecal pellets can be a valuable method for monitoring rare and cryptic wildlife populations, like the pygmy rabbit (Brachylagus idahoensis). To investigate this method's efficiency for pygmy rabbit monitoring, we evaluated the effect of sample age on DNA degradation in faecal pellets under summer field conditions. We placed 275 samples from known individuals in natural field conditions for 1-60 days and assessed DNA quality by amplifying a 294-base-pair (bp) mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) locus and five nuclear DNA (nDNA) microsatellite loci (111-221 bp). DNA degradation was influenced by sample age, DNA type, locus length and rabbit sex. Both mtDNA and nDNA exhibited high PCR success rates (94.4%) in samples <1 day old. Success rates for microsatellite loci declined rapidly from 80.0% to 42.7% between days 5 and 7, likely due to increased environmental temperature. Success rates for mtDNA amplification remained higher than nDNA over time, with moderate success (66.7%) at 21 days. Allelic dropout rates were relatively high (17.6% at <1 day) and increased to 100% at 60 days. False allele rates ranged from 0 to 30.0% and increased gradually over time. We recommend collecting samples as fresh as possible for individual identification during summer field conditions. Our study suggests that this method can be useful for future monitoring efforts, including occupancy surveys, individual identification, population estimation, parentage analysis and monitoring of genetic diversity both of a re-introduced population in central Washington and across their range.

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Age-specific life-history data are needed to understand animal ecology and inform conservation strategies. We compared telemetry and noninvasive genetic sampling (NGS) as methods for monitoring survival and dispersal of juvenile pygmy rabbits (Brachylagus idahoensis) reintroduced to central Washington, USA. During summer 2012, we released 104 juvenile rabbits, 85 of which were fitted with glue-on radiotransmitters and located 2-4 times/week while transmitters were retained ( x ¼ 15 days). We tracked and recovered 63 transmitters, while signals were lost from 22. Most rabbits remained near the release site, with 9 dispersing > 1 km, and only 2 moving >3 km. During winter, we surveyed nearly 9 km 2 around the release site and collected 117 fecal samples for genetic analysis. Forty-two individuals were identified, 38 from the summer releases (37% survival) and 4 born in the wild from parents released in 2011. Using NGS, we identified rabbits 1) released without transmitters, 2) with undetected transmitter signals, 3) presumed dead, and 4) produced in the wild. Short-term dispersal behavior was best gathered with telemetry, but information was limited, and we were unable to estimate survival probabilities because of the short duration of transmitter retention. The information on dispersal, survival, and reproduction provided by NGS allowed us to evaluate longer term reintroduction success, but was limited by the area we were able to search. We compare the results, costs, benefits, and limitations of each method for addressing specific monitoring objectives.

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Many temperate bird species are breeding earlier in response to warming temperatures. We examined the effects of climate on breeding phenology and productivity in 19 populations across the range of the Red-cockaded Woodpecker (Dryobates borealis), an endangered species endemic to pine (Pinus spp.) forests in the southeastern United States. Red-cockaded Woodpeckers nested earlier in warmer springs and delayed nesting in wetter springs. Earlier nesting and larger group sizes resulted in higher productivity. Spring temperatures have warmed over time across the range, but this has not led to range-wide advances in nesting date over time. Coastal and northern populations have exhibited a trend of earlier nesting over time, but the response of inland populations has been variable, including some populations in which nesting has become later over time. Geographic patterns included high and increasing productivity at higher latitudes, and declining productivity in the southwestern portion of the range, suggesting a possible shift in acceptable climate conditions for the species. Earlier nesting over time was associated with increasing productivity at higher latitudes, while elsewhere earlier nesting over time was associated with declining or stable productivity, suggesting that populations differ in their ability to adjust to a changing climate. The Red-cockaded Woodpecker is a habitat specialist heavily reliant on habitat management and has little capacity to shift its range, so its long-term viability will depend on its ability to adjust in place to changing local conditions.