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This article proposes that all psychologists—and all psychologies—are innately concerned with justice, and yet there is no consensually defined discipline of psychology, and no consensual understanding of social justice. Adopting an intergroup and identity-based model of what is and what should be, we will describe the mechanisms whereby identities and perceptions of justice are formed, contested, and changed over time. We will argue that psychological research and practice have implications for social justice even where—and perhaps especially when—these are not made explicit. Psychology is considered as the product of diverse groups with distinct and evolving identities, and with differential access to resources and power, which dynamically contest different normative perceptions of justice.

The present research adopts an extended theory of planned behavior model that included descriptive norms, risk, and trust to investigate online privacy protection in Facebook users. Facebook users (N=119) completed a questionnaire assessing their attitude, subjective injunctive norm, subjective descriptive norm, perceived behavioral control, implicit perceived risk, trust of other Facebook users, and intentions toward protecting their privacy online. Behavior was measured indirectly two weeks after the study. The data show partial support for the theory of planned behavior, and strong support for the independence of subjective injunctive and descriptive norms. Risk also uniquely predicted intentions over and above the theory of planned behavior, but were no unique effects of trust on intentions, or of risk or trust on behavior. Implications are discussed.

The theory of planned behavior was used to predict participants' (n = 219) sun protection intentions and (longitudinally) self-reported behavior from attitudes, perceptions of control, and subjective norms. Norm focus theory was incorporated by distinguishing injunctive and descriptive norms. In turn, subjective descriptive and injunctive norms were examined in relation to the norms of a salient referent group: university students. Referent group norms were found to be associated with subjective norms, and to influence intentions indirectly. A marginal interaction of referent group descriptive and injunctive norms was also observed on behavior. Results highlight the importance of examining indirect effects in order to capture the effect of group-level processes when multiple sources and levels of normative influence are examined.Skin cancers are potentially fatal diseases that affect thousands of people around the world every year (e.g., Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2012; Cancer Council Australia, 2012). Melanoma, the most virulent form of skin cancer, is the third most common cancer among Australian men and women, and the most common cancer among young Australians between 15 and 44 years of age (Cancer Council Australia, 2013). Because many skin cancers are preventable, campaigns targeting sun protection have been running for decades, yet sun damage due to lack of sun protection is still a major problem with rates of melanoma diagnosis expected to continue to rise (e.g., Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2012). The aim of this paper was to contribute to the large body of work examining sun protection behavior by addressing the theoretical importance of normative influence within the planned behavior model. In particular, the research integrated norm focus theory, referent informational influence, and the theory of planned behavior to investigate how direct, indirect, and interactive effects of referent group injunctive and descriptive norms could be observed, and thus to extend our understanding of the role of social influence in this domain. The theory of planned behaviorThe theory of planned behavior is an empirically supported model of the predictors of behavior (Ajzen, 1991;Armitage & Conner, 2001;Manning, 2009). It builds upon the theory of reasoned action and proposes that behavior is predicted by intentions that are, in turn, predicted by attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. Attitudes are the individual's evaluation or appraisal of the behavior; subjective norms refer to the social pressure from significant others to engage in the behavior; and perceived behavioral control is the individual's perception of the ease or difficulty of engaging in the behavior (Ajzen, 1991). The theory of planned behavior proposes that if an individual's attitudes and subjective norm are positive and perceived behavioral control is high, the individual is more likely to intend to act and ultimately more likely to engage in the behavior. The relative importance of each of thes...