A conceptual framework composed of eight categories of mentoring activities that address five domains of beginning teachers' concerns was developed based on the reported activities of 150 teachers who were lead mentors. The study suggests that experienced teachers possess an extensive repertoire of helping strategies and that, with opportunities for collaboration, teachers can develop and shape complex mentoring roles that meet beginning teachers' needs. Conditions that influence mentoring relationships include school context factors and mentor and beginning teacher characteristics. Mentoring programs thus should not attempt to rigidly specify mentoring roles. With support, experienced teachers can provide assistance tailored to the circumstances of beginning teachers in individual schools.

Rooted in behavioral theory, particularly the radical or selectivist behaviorism of B.F. Skinner (1953B.F. Skinner ( , 1954B.F. Skinner ( , 1966B.F. Skinner ( , 1968B.F. Skinner ( , 1974, the direct instruction (DI) (see, e.g., Skinner, 1953(see, e.g., Skinner, , 1966, the direct instruction (DI) of Siegfried Engelmann (Bereiter & Engelmann, 1966) is now well into its third decade of influencing curriculum, instruction, and research. It is also in its third decade of controversy (c.f., Gersten, Baker, Pugach, Scanlon, & Chard, 2001).To begin, we offer a definition and our stance related to DI-which has become the whipping post in some pedagogical camps, while the panacea in others. For clarity, DI is not a lecture approach (e.g., Freiberg & Driscoll, 2000). It is an instructional model that focuses on the interaction between teachers and students. Key components of DI include "modeling, reinforcement, feedback, and successive approximations" (Joyce, Weil, & Calhoun, 2000, p. 337). Joyce and colleagues specified the instructional design principles, which include the framing of learner performance into goals and tasks, breaking these tasks into smaller component tasks, designing training activities for mastery, and arranging the learning events into sequences that promote transfer and achievement of prerequisite learning before moving to more advance learning. Essentially, DI is "modeling with reinforced guided performance" (Joyce et al., p. 337).Our intent in this article is to explicate the genesis, components, and permutations of DI as it has evolved in practice, and describe how it is being used in instructional technology. 41comprehensive educational program. The research indicates its usefulness in maintaining time on task, the learning of skilled performance, and high rates of success when designed correctly (e.g., Fisher et al., 1980;Slavin, Madden, Dolan, & Wasik, 1996). Therefore, we believe that instructional designers, software designers, teachers and the like ought to know its foundation, essential components, historical and current uses, and potential for designing instruction that promotes student success for particular instructional objectives. (b) Second, and related to the first, our experience with lay faculty (and some instructional technology practitioners) who design instruction, especially online education, indicates a dearth of knowledge regarding the research and application of DI. Over the past two decades, DI has been overused by some, maligned by others, and frequently been wrongly equated with a pure lecture approach. DI is not for all uses, objectives, or learners; no approach is. DI is a useful tool for the appropriate purpose, objectives, and context, and the appropriate learners. (c) Finally, while DI has maintained its core principles over time, it has evolved in response to new understandings about learners and learning. We will elaborate on these variations (e.g., expository teaching) and the research that indicates their utility.The DI model was created by Engelmann an...

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Although there are numerous models to practice instructional design (ID) (Richey & Nelson, 1996) was used to describe our teaching in terms of the design decisions, model implementation, and model evaluation across six deliveries of the ID course from 1994-1998. A model of teaching is a plan that can be used to design teaching in classrooms or tutorial settings and to shape instructional materials (Joyce, Weil, & Showers, 1992). Pragmatically, an instructional model is a "step-by-step procedure that leads to specific learning outcomes" (Gunter, Estes, & Schwab, 1995, p. 67). Models provide new teachers with a new approach and give experienced teachers a "jumping-off place" to expand their repertoire. Teaching models give teachers a conceptual as well as a practical technology from which to teach. Considering and implementing new teaching approaches can help a teacher to understand one's view of the content to be taught, as well as to reflect on one's view of learning, the learner, and the role of the teacher (Shambaugh, 1999).The purpose of this article is to describe the development of a model for teaching instructional design (ID) that is based on five years of collaborative examination of our teaching of a master's level instructional design course. The article is divided into two major sections. In the first section, we (a) outline our views on learning, teaching, and instructional design, (b) describe the ID course, and (c) explain our reflexive instructional model as it is currently conceptualized. In the second section, we summarize our developmental research activity (Richey & Nelson, 1996) that supports our work. We explain the methodology and how the model evolved over six iterations of the course from 1994-1998, and discuss the findings and future implications of our work.

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