An effective enterprise means correctly implemented processes. Today, logistics plays an important role in the company, and it influences the processes carried out in production companies, ensuring the implementation of its most important function - production. The article analyses the processes of trading in returnable packaging. The optimisation of these activities was carried out on the basis of a program for simulating logistics processes. The main purpose of the article is to identify the impact of the processes of material delivery and packaging turnover on the functioning of a production company. The article is based on a case study of a manufacturing company. In the discussed case, the FlexSim program was used to simulate logistic processes. The situation presented in the article allows to shorten the time and reduce costs that were necessary for the accepted materials to be made available for processing by introducing returnable packaging, adapted to be transferred directly to production. Suppliers providing them with materials will allow you to bypass the unnecessary process. Such activities also result in the circulation of returnable packaging.

This paper attempts to explain the process of institutional transition of post-communist countries applying conceptual framework proposed by D.C. North, J. J. Wallis, and B. R. Weingast. The first part of the article is devoted to outline the theory of North, Weingast, and Wallis. The second part the theory is used to analyze transformation processes in post-communist countries. An important conclusion of this paper is that cultural, religious and historical factors have crucial impact on formation of new coalitions of elites in the transitions countries. In the countries where Western values were present the transfer of the market and democratic formal institutions was easier. Also, the process of transformation was strongly influenced by external factors, especially the prospect of integration with the European Union, which encouraged elites to take action that benefited the opening of both political and economic markets. These observations suggest that, in general, the success of transformation in transition countries did not depend on the intentional actions of ruling elites.

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Motivation: The Covid-19 pandemic is having a critical impact on economies, especially in developing countries. Such a serious external shock affects the distribution of economic rents, thus leading to potentially large institutional changes. Naturally, in the short term we are dealing with an economic crisis and a restriction of civil liberties in both autocratic and democratic countries, however, it is not known what the dynamics of institutional changes will be in the longer run. Aim: The main purpose of the article is to answer if the Covid-19 pandemic becomes a turning point that will determine the institutional system in developing countries for the next few decades. The first part of the article outlines the theory of institutional change, with particular emphasis on the role of external shocks. The next section presents studies on the socioeconomic impact of two major epidemics: The Black Death and the Great Influenza Pandemic. The third part conducts an assessment as to what extent the current pandemic may affect institutions in developing countries, by reference to the example of two countries: Tunisia and Cambodia. The analysis is conducted from the perspective of the new institutional economics. Results: If we look at the experiences from previous pandemics, current events and refer to the literature on the theory of institutional change, we can conclude that significant institutional changes caused by Covid-19 are unlikely. The process of institutional change is characterized by a specific complexity and changing dynamics. Nonetheless, it is the internal factors, reflecting the actions of people trying to maximize the benefits, which are the main cause of change in an institutional system. Therefore, the Covid-19 pandemic is more likely to strengthen the endogeneity of the process of institutional change, rather than change its course.

StreszczenieWykorzystując perspektywę badawczą nowej ekonomii instytucjonalnej, w artykule przedstawiono dwie główne przyczyny trudności reformowania gospodarki w czasie transformacji od gospodarki socjalistycznej do rynkowej. Po pierwsze, przeszkodą jest działanie grup interesu, które zawsze starają się tak wpływać na proces zmian instytucjonalnych, żeby osiągać jak największe własne korzyści. Po drugie, aby uzyskać optymalnie społeczną równowagę instytucjonalną, wszyscy powinni przestrzegać ustanowionych zasad, jednakże czasami najlepszą strategią z punktu widzenia jednostek może być oszukiwanie. Zasadniczo trudno przewidzieć, kiedy społeczeństwo będzie w stanie stworzyć efektywne zasady, które większość będzie skłonna przestrzegać. Prawdopodobieństwo stworzenia efektywnego systemu instytucjonalnego jest w dużym stopniu uwarunkowane przez instytucje nieformalne. Niestety, nasza wiedza o tym, jak kształtuje się nieformalna część systemu instytucjonalnego, jest nadal dość ograniczona. Słowa kluczowe: nowa ekonomia instytucjonalna, transformacja gospodarcza, grupy interesu, instytucje nieformalne ROLE OF INFORMAL ORGANISATIONS AND INSTITUTIONS IN ECONOMIC TRANSFORMATION SummaryUsing the perspective of new institutional economics, the paper presents two adverse factors which affect the transition from the socialist system to a free market one. Firstly, the process of institutional change is almost always influenced by interest groups which pursue their own goals. Secondly, in order to achieve a socially optimal institutional equilibrium, everyone should abide by the established rules. Sometimes, however, deception is the best strategy from the individual point of view. It is difficult to predict when society will be able to create effective rules likely to be respected by the majority. This is largely determined by the existing informal institutions. Unfortunately, our knowledge about how to shape the informal part of the institutional system, is still quite limited.