Polyamines are low molecular weight, aliphatic polycations found in the cells of all living organisms. Due to their positive charges, polyamines bind to macromolecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins. They are involved in diverse processes, including regulation of gene expression, translation, cell proliferation, modulation of cell signalling, and membrane stabilization. They also modulate the activities of certain sets of ion channels. Because of these multifaceted functions, the homeostasis of polyamines is crucial and is ensured through regulation of biosynthesis, catabolism, and transport. Through isolation of the genes involved in plant polyamine biosynthesis and loss-of-function experiments on the corresponding genes, their essentiality for growth is reconfirmed. Polyamines are also involved in stress responses and diseases in plants, indicating their importance for plant survival. This review summarizes the recent advances in polyamine research in the field of plant science compared with the knowledge obtained in microorganisms and animal systems.

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An immediate-early, transiently activated wound-responsive gene was identified in tobacco by fluorescent differential display screening. The full-length cDNA encodes a polypeptide of 356 amino acids with a relative molecular mass of 39,082 Da. The deduced amino acid sequence shows two characteristic features; a leucine-zipper motif found in the more N-terminal region and a WRKY domain containing a zinc-finger motif located in the central region. The gene was designated as wizz (wound-induced leucine zipper zinc finger). Northern analysis showed that upon wounding wizz transcripts were locally and systemically accumulated within 10 min, reached a maximum level by 30 min, and decreased thereafter to the basal level. Analyses of a WIZZ-GFP fusion protein clearly indicated that WIZZ is a nuclear factor. WIZZ specifically binds to sequences containing two TTGAC core motifs that are separated by a spacer of appropriate length. The binding activity was dependent on bivalent cations, most probably zinc. In transient reporter assays, however, WIZZ did not show transactivation activity in tobacco suspension cells, suggesting that it functions together with other components. The results indicate that WIZZ is a new transcription factor which participates in early stages of the wound response.

It is well known that changes in abiotic conditions such as the concentration of ions, temperature and humidity lead to modulation of polyamine contents in plants. However, little is known about the relevant parts these polyamines play in abiotic stress responses. Here we addressed a specific role of spermine during high salt stress using an Arabidopsis double knockoutmutant plant (acl5/spms) which cannot produce spermine. The mutant showed higher sensitivity to high salt than wild type plants. This phenotype was cured by exogenous spermine but not by the other polyamines putrescine and spermidine, suggesting a strong link between spermine-deficiency and NaCl-hypersensitivity. The mutant was also hypersensitive to high levels of KCl but not to MgCl 2 or to high osmoticum. NaCl-hypersensitivity of the mutant was compromised by treatment with Ca 2+ channel blockers. Moreover, the mutant showed poor growth on Ca 2+ -depleted Murashige-Skoog agar media. The data suggest that the absence of spermine causes an imbalance in Ca 2+ homeostasis in the mutant plant. Based on the data obtained, we propose a model for a role of spermine in high salt stress responses.

The major plant polyamines (PAs) are the tetraamines spermine (Spm) and thermospermine (T-Spm), the triamine spermidine, and the diamine putrescine. PA homeostasis is governed by the balance between biosynthesis and catabolism; the latter is catalyzed by polyamine oxidase (PAO). Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) has five PAO genes, AtPAO1 to AtPAO5, and all encoded proteins have been biochemically characterized. All AtPAO enzymes function in the back-conversion of tetraamine to triamine and/or triamine to diamine, albeit with different PA specificities. Here, we demonstrate that AtPAO5 loss-of-function mutants (pao5) contain 2-fold higher T-Spm levels and exhibit delayed transition from vegetative to reproductive growth compared with that of wild-type plants. Although the wild type and pao5 are indistinguishable at the early seedling stage, externally supplied low-dose T-Spm, but not other PAs, inhibits aerial growth of pao5 mutants in a dose-dependent manner. Introduction of wild-type AtPAO5 into pao5 mutants rescues growth and reduces the T-Spm content, demonstrating that AtPAO5 is a T-Spm oxidase. Recombinant AtPAO5 catalyzes the conversion of T-Spm and Spm to triamine spermidine in vitro. AtPAO5 specificity for T-Spm in planta may be explained by coexpression with T-Spm synthase but not with Spm synthase. The pao5 mutant lacking T-Spm oxidation and the acl5 mutant lacking T-Spm synthesis both exhibit growth defects. This study indicates a crucial role for T-Spm in plant growth and development.Polyamines (PAs) are low-molecular mass aliphatic amines that are present in almost all living organisms. Cellular PA concentrations are governed primarily by the balance between biosynthesis and catabolism. In plants, the major PAs are the diamine putrescine (Put), the triamine spermidine (Spd), and the tetraamines spermine (Spm) and thermospermine (T-Spm; Kusano et al.,