Background: The circadian timing system or circadian clock plays a crucial role in many biological processes, such as the sleep-wake cycle, hormone secretion, cardiovascular health, glucose homeostasis, and body temperature regulation. Energy balance is also one of the most important cornerstones of metabolic processes, whereas energy imbalance is associated with many diseases (i.e., obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease). Circadian clock is the main regulator of metabolism, and this analysis provides an overview of the bidirectional effect of circadian rhythm on metabolic processes and energy balance. Summary: The circadian timing system or circadian clock plays a crucial role in many biological processes, but the increase in activities that operate 24/7 and the common usage of television, internet, and mobile phones almost 24 h a day leads to a gradual decrease in the adequate sleeping time. According to recent research, long-term circadian disruptions are associated with many pathological conditions such as premature mortality, obesity, impaired glucose tolerance, diabetes, psychiatric disorders, anxiety, depression, and cancer progression, whereas short-term disruptions are associated with impaired wellness, fatigue, and loss of concentration. In this review, the circadian rhythm in metabolic processes and their effect on energy balance were examined. Key Messages: Circadian rhythm has a bidirectional interaction with almost all metabolic processes. Therefore, understanding the main reason affecting the circadian clock and creating treatment guidelines using circadian rhythm may increase the success of disease treatment. Chronopharmacology, chrononutrition, and chronoexercise are the novel treatment approaches in metabolic balance.

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Celiac disease (CD) is triggered by both genetic and environmental factors. More than 1% of the world's population is affected by CD. In recent years, studies have confirmed a worldwide rising trend in CD prevalence. "Westernized diet" is one of the main factors of this increasing prevalence. However, the relationship between wheat consumption, its dynamics, and CD has not been adequately investigated on a global scale. This study aimed to perform a multilevel analysis of the association between wheat consumption and CD. Wheat consumption data from countries and continents were obtained from the database. The relative increase/decrease in wheat consumption over a long period (since 1961) and a short period (since 2004) were calculated using various statistical tools. The relationship between wheat consumption and celiac frequency was determined using the R-commander R package version 2.6-2. Pearson's correlation coefficient (r ¼ 0.88) confirmed a high positive correlation between wheat consumption and the prevalence of biopsy-proven CD by estimating continent-wide wheat consumption data, but an insignificant correlation was found when the data were compared country-wide.

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celiac disease (cD) is a chronic enteropathy caused by the ingestion of gluten in genetically susceptible individuals. cD is a common food-related disorder with a prevalence of ~1% worldwide. Failure to follow the only available treatment, i.e., a standard gluten-free diet (GFD), increases the risk of adverse outcomes, such as refractory cD. Studies have reported that the long-term avoidance of a GFD may lead to the development of certain types of cancer in patients with cD. An increased risk of gastrointestinal cancers and intestinal lymphomas are associated with cD. On the other hand, recent studies have demonstrated that the risk of colon cancer, ovarian and breast cancer is low in patients with cD. It has also been demonstrated that a strict GFD exerts a positive effect in reducing the cancer risk. However, only a limited number of studies have been conducted in this area, and the outcomes of these studies warrant further verifications. The present review article summarises and discusses the possible links between cD and cancer, and the probable reasons behind their association. In addition, the present review also discusses whether a strict GFD reduces the risk of developing certain types of cancer in patients with cD.